Santa+Fe+River+Group+Project

=**Santa Fe River**=

= = The Santa Fe River watershed is located in Santa Fe County in north central New Mexico. The regulated Santa Fe River is the primary drainage feature in the watershed with 7 major tributaries contributing primarily storm water and spring flows. Three unique zones are differentiated based on land use and hydrologic features and labeled the upper, urban and lower portions of Santa Fe River watershed. The upper perennial reach is where snow accumulates in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains and snow melt water is stored in municipal reservoirs to serve the City of Santa Fe. The urban area is within the City of Santa Fe and where most restoration efforts are focused. The lower watershed is the discharge area for the basin and contains multiple natural and improved springs. Additionally the City of Santa Fe Wastewater Treatment Plant discharges into the lower reach of the Santa Fe River creating perennial conditions.

In the arid south west the Santa Fe Basin has served as an impetus for people to occupy the region for hundreds of years. Water for irrigation historically and currently is managed through the acequia system which is based on cooperation and democratic use of water. Increase population has resulted in a larger urban area and a higher demand on surface water resources and ultimately changing the historic conditions of the river. Numerous plant and animal species occupy the riparian zones in the basin with the lower watershed designated suitable for marginal coldwater and warm water aquatic life by NMED. Anthropogenic activites are responsible for changes in the historic stream hydrograph resulting in downcutting, erosion and reduction in riparian ecosystems.

Rehabilitation efforts have been focused on tree thinning in the upper watershed to protest the water supply in the municipal reservoirs from the impact of forest fires. The erosion and debris associated with such events drew concern from public officials and citizens. The city has also made efforts to contain stormwater runoff within the urban area to attenuate peak flows with the goal of reducing erosion and improving water quality. Several low-water crossings within the Santa Fe Riverbed have been eliminated to reduce impacts of automobiles and potential contamination issues in the event of a collision. = =

Existing Watershed Setting
The Santa Fe River Watershed is located in Santa Fe County in north central New Mexico. The watershed is approximately 285 square miles with a 46-mile river course starting in the western slope of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains and terminating at the Rio Grande River below Cochiti Lake. Elevations in the watershed range from 11,580 ft at the highest point to 4,700 ft above mean sea level at the Santa Fe River/ Rio Grande River confluence. Arroyo Hondo, Cienega Creek and Bonanza Creek contribute primarily storm water and spring flows. = = NMED Surface Water Quality Bureau describes the land ownership as 59% private and the rest government and pueblo lands. Primary land cover is described as 68% grassland, 9% shrub land, 17% forested upland with 6% developed residential or commercial uses. (NMED, 2010) = =

Climate
Climate in the region is dry, semi-arid with precipitation concentrated primarily in the summer in a monsoonal pattern. Monthly average precipitation ranges from 0.5 inches to 2.5 inches per month with greater precipitation at higher elevations. The summer average maximum temperatures range from 80° to 90°F with associated average low temperatures in the mid 50s. Winter average high temperatures are between 40°F to 45°F with lows typically near 20°F.

Geologic Setting
Santa Fe Watershed is located within the Santa Fe Embayment of the Rio Grande Rift formed Espanola Basin. Tertiary basalts originating from the Jemez Volcanic field flank the west side of the basin while tertiary intrusive volcanics of the Cerrillos Hills are present at shallow depths in the lower watershed. The upper watershed is comprised of Proterozoic rocks of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains which transitions to basin fill sediments of the Ancha and Tesuque Formations; which is the predominant aquifer in the region. = =

Surface Hydrology
Three regional surface water drainages were delineated by the NM Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources (Johnson 2005) which divide the watershed into the main stem Santa Fe River, Cienega Creek and Bonanza Creek. If sufficient flow exists, water from the Santa Fe River flows, The Santa Fe River has perennial flow in the headwaters in the upper watershed and in the lower watershed, or the discharge area. Perennial flows exist in the Cienega Creek and to a lesser extent Bonanza Creek due to the discharge of groundwater via springs and seeps. Spring flows are diminished seasonally due to irrigation, seepage and evapotranspiration. Perennial conditions also exist in the lower Santa Fe River due to discharged effluent from the City of Santa Fe Wastewater Treatment Plant. The section of the main stem Santa Fe River between the upper watershed and the wastewater treatment plan has no appreciable flows, with the exception of water released from the Municipal Reservoir and precipitation events. Major ephemeral drainages include Arroyo Mascaras, Canada Ancha, Arroyo de los Chamisos, Arroyo Calabasas; which primarily contribute storm flows. ==

Groundwater Hydrology
The direction of horizontal groundwater flow in the Santa Fe River Watershed is from east to west ultimately converging at the confluence of La Cienega Creek and the Santa Fe River. Groundwater flow units were described by NMBGMRA based on recharge, flow and discharge; with the Cienega Unit within the watershed. The boundaries separating these units do not act as no flow boundaries under well pumping conditions, so pumping from one unit can impact another. (Johnson 2005) The primary aquifer is the Tesuque Formation which is composed of sands, silts and gravel overlain by the more conductive Ancha Formation; which is saturated in the vicinity of the La Cienega Springs. A distinct connection between the surface and groundwater exists in the discharge area creating limitations on groundwater pumping through the Office of the State Engineer permitting process. = =

Upper Watershed
The upper watershed, also referred to as the Santa Fe Municipal Watershed, represents approximately 10% of the entire 285 square miles of the drainage area. The watershed starts in the Pecos Wilderness and flows with the remaining on land owned by the Santa Fe National Forest, private and public entities. The vegetation is primarily ponderosa pine forest with smaller portions of pinion juniper woodlands, oak, riparian vegetation and aspen. (USDA 2001) The upper watershed is where snow accumulates in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains and melt water is stored in municipal reservoirs to serve the City of Santa Fe. Water flows over the natural unlined river section to stonework and cemented sections on the east side of the City of Santa Fe. = =

[[image:SFR3.jpg align="left" caption="Figure 3: Regional geologic setting of the Espanola Basin (Johnson, 2005)"]]Urban Watershed
The portion of the Santa Fe River that runs through the city of Santa Fe is termed the urban watershed as flows are dominated by urban flows which are captured in several arroyos or directly into the river. The Arroyo de la Joya, Arroyo de San Antonio, Arroyo Mascaras, Canada Ancha, Arroyo de los Chamisos Arroyo Torreon, and Arroyo Barranca all drain into the Santa Fe River. The urban watershed has a long history of occupation and water use, as discussed previously, and is the area with the greatest degradation. Based on historic photos and historic acequia works in Agua Fria, flow in the urban Santa Fe River was perennial. Additional evidence of a former wetland is found in remnant hydric soil in a cut bank near Agua Fria. (Pittenger 2007) = = Currently this reach of the river is ephemeral with an entrenched sandy channel. The banks are earthen, steep, easily eroded and often unstable. These sidewalls have been stabilized using gabion baskets and grouted riprap in a number of places in the reach from St. Francis Drive to New Mexico Route 599. (ACE Hydro RPT) Two major grade control structures reduce bed degradation and create channel equilibrium. (Pittenger 2007) = =

Lower Watershed
= = Outside the urban area the river channel is less entrenched and flows through a wide sandy arroyo, heavily mined for sand and gravel, to the City of Santa Fe Wastewater Treatment Plant. Below the treatment plant is the second perennial reach which runs about 14 miles through the communities of La Cieneguilla and La Bajada and the basalt capped Santa Fe Canyon. If surface water reaches the distal end of the Santa Fe River it would flow into Cochiti Lake. The lower watershed is the discharge area for the basin and contains multiple natural and improved springs. Historically water captured from springs was and currently is used for irrigation through the acequia system. The Santa Fe River Adjudication currently recognizes approximately 325 acres of irrigated land within the lower watershed with prior to 1907 priority dates. This recognition makes this area sensitive to water use up-gradient and through the water right permitting process mitigation of calculated impacts, predicted to diminish spring flow, is required. Downstream of the wastewater treatment plant a former broad sandy channel with savanna vegetarian has been transformed into a dense riparian area. This plant discharged between 4,000 and 4,500 acre-feet per year into the Santa Fe River for the 2004 – 2009 time period. (City of Santa Fe, 2010) Discharge from the plant is used for irrigation by El Canon and the Village of La Bajada but also sold for re-use, which causes water shortages during the peak of the irrigation season.

Socio Economic and Ecology of the Santa Fe River
= =

//Socio-Economics (information obtained from the US Census Bureau)//
Santa Fe County's total population estimate in 2011 was 144,170. People of hispanic origin comprise 50.3% of the total population, while white, non-hispanics make up 43.9%, native americans 3.1% and all other races account for the remaining 2.7%. The majority of the people residing in Santa Fe county are between the ages of 18 and 65 (51%), while a quarter of the population is under the age of 18 and 15% are over the age of 65. Over 80% of the housing in Santa Fe County is single family; meaning that a relatively small percentage of the population lives in apartment complexes or multi-family structures. 71.9% of the population owns their own home. The mean annual income for residents is $52, 969 and over 40% of the people have obtained a bachelor's degree or higher.

Santa Fe County and the City of Santa Fe are on a increasing block rate fee shcdule for residential water use; the price per unit of water (1000gal) is steady for the first 7 units of use, price then increases significantly with every additional unit of water. Through implementation of the this fee schedule, along with one of the best water conservation programs in the Southwest (Santa Fe Watershed Association, 2012), Santa Fe County has reduced the per capita water usage by 38% in less than 10 years.

//Ecology//
= = The restoration projects on the Santa Fe River are based on aesthetics, function, and practicality of having a healthy River and Watershed. Many residents in the area have deep rooted relationships with the river and feel a certain stewardship to help maintain and protect it (Borchert, 2010). Restoration efforts are geared not only at providing a benefit to the recreation of the river and tourism it also serves benefits to the ecosystem as well. Increased ecosystem health can increase bank stability by increasing natural vegetation on the banks. Alsothe increase in this vegetation, especially riparian vegetation can help to slow and reduce peak flows so they are less destructive and can help to store more water that recharges the aquifer. The restoration efforts are aimed at being simple and not increasing costs for residents of the area. = = No federal or state listed endangered species are known in the urban watershed but thirty one birds and several mammal and reptiles species were observed in a 2007 field survey. Bird species richness was higher in vegetation that had structural diversity. (Pittenger 2007) According to the [|New Mexico Game and Fish BISON database]144 various species of fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals found within streams and canals are within Santa Fe County. This database did not spatially delineate habitat area based on watershed boundaries but the following table is a gross estimate of species by taxonomic group: = =
 * ** Taxonomic Group ** || ** Number of Species ** ||
 * Fish || 20 ||
 * Amphibians || 7 ||
 * Reptiles || 14 ||
 * Birds || 90 ||
 * Mammals || 13 ||

**Surface Water Quality Issues**
= =

Stream Designation
= = NMED Surface Water Quality Bureau has designated the uses for the Lower Santa Fe river as irrigation, livestock watering, wildlife habitat, marginal coldwater aquatic life, and warm water aquatic life. (NMAC 20-6-4) The perennial and intermittent reaches have standard designated uses including livestock watering, wildlife habitat, aquatic life. The effluent-dominated reach immediately below the WWTP effluent channel to just below Cieneguilla was determined by NMED in 2010 to be impaired for nutrients. Further downstream to Cochiti Reservoir was found to be impaired for nutrients, dissolved oxygen, sedimentation / siltation, and turbidity. (NMED 2010)

When Spanish explorers first arrived in the present area of Santa Fe in 1598, they found four active Indian pueblos where perennial springs merged with the emphemeral Santa Fe River. Over the next 350 years, the Santa Fe River was the community’s sole source of water to meet agricultural and domestic needs.
 * The History of Water Use in the Santa Fe Basin **

Spanish Conquistadors established Santa Fe as the state capital in 1610. As the Spanish emigrated from Spain, they brought with them the Moorish tradition of acequia systems. The acequia system, a network of below and above ground canals used for irrigation, tapped into the Santa Fe River, and was the first establishment of a routine, large-scale diversion from the river. In all, more than 30 acequias were implemented, irrigating over 2,000 acres of farmland. Prior to the advent of the acequia system, Native American Pueblos use the Santa Fe River water to irrigate their crops; however the Spanish used the river in never before seen quantities. Although historians and hydrologists disagree to what extent the pre-historic river flowed, by the 1700’s, stretches of the Santa Fe River were drying by the end of the summer growing season.

Historians suggest that Spanish considered the Santa Fe River as the lifeblood of both the community members and its culture. From Santa Fe’s inception as the state capital until the mid19th Century, they treated it as so with mandates and ethics that reflected this belief. The Spanish and Natives living among them believed that all creatures had a right to water, and that the “principals of water sharing belongs to a larger moral economy that promotes cooperative economic behavior (Santa Fe River Ethics, 2009)". The acequia systems of Northern New Mexico are based on the ethics of sharing and the democratic use of water.

In the 19th Century, Santa Fe experienced a significant shift in the cultural dependence and reverence of the river. The Santa Fe Trail was established, helping connect the East to the West, and eventually led to the American annexation of New Mexico in 1848 (Mednick, 1996). Shortly after, the railroad was established in Santa Fe and created an availability imported food supplies thus decreasing the areas dependency on agriculture. The first dam construction in 1880 coupled with the privatization of water by the incorporated Santa Fe Water Company, was the first of a major paradigm shift in the way Santa Fe residents thought about water.

The first dam built on the Santa Fe River was constructed in 1883. It was located approximately 2.5 miles upstream from the Plaza and held only 25 AF of water; approximately 1% of the current capacity of today’s reservoirs (Borchert, 2008). In 1893, the "Two Mile" Dam was built downstream of the first stone dam. The storage capacity of the Two Mile Dam was significantly larger and could hold 387 AF. In 1904, the first, smaller dam was filled with sediment in a large flood event and was then rendered obsolete. Between 1904 and 1926, the Water Company delivered 400 AF of water for irrigation and household use. During this period, Santa Fe experienced a population explosion; the population quadrupled from 5,072 to over 20,000. As people moved to the area, more residents tapped into the water system and drastically reduced the quantity of water that flowed into the acequia system (Plewa 2007). In 1914 a hydrographic survey of the Santa Fe River was conducted. According to this study, the river at that time was diverted by 38 irrigation ditches that provided water for approximately 1,267 acres with an application rate of 4.5 AFY, totaling 5,701 AF. The furthest upstream irrigated fields were in the area now occupied by the City’s McClure Reservoir; the furthest downstream, were farms in La Bajada that are still under acequia-fed irrigation. This level of irrigation is evidence that historical settlements learned to depend on this water, and that there was sufficient quantities to support their agrarian lifestyle.

Until World War-II, irrigation was the primary consumer of water in the Santa Fe Basin. Between 1928 and 1943, two additional dams, the McClure and Nichols, were completed and more than doubled the storage capacity of the Santa Fe River for the City. When soldiers returned from WW-II they found acequias that were nearly dry and legal water battles (re-allocation of water-rights and institution of priority dates) waiting for them in Santa Fe; for all intents and purposes, the era of agriculture was over (waterculture.org, 2009). From here on out, water would be used as a tool for urban expansion rather than farm production (Santa Fe Watershed Association, 2011). In the post WW-II era, the river channel severely eroded, the channel bottom was scoured and degraded well below the level of the old irrigation canals making them useless. The downcutting of the river channel was viewed as an inexpensive remedy to flood control issues throughout the city, and in some places, the river has eroded over 15 ft below grade, lowering the water table and killing the many cottonwoods that lined the streets of the historic downtown (Plewa, 2010).

In 1994, the Two Mile Dam was decommissioned for fear that the dam had become unstable. Shortly thereafter, the privatized municipal water system, which included the two remaining reservoirs, required costly maintenance and was then sold to the City of Santa Fe. The water supply was once again under public management. Today, the City of Santa Fe recognizes the importance of a living healthy river, and has dedicated 1000 AFY of water to the river. The 1000 AFY is a maximum and the true volume of water released to the river is determined by how full the reservoirs are in relation to storage capacity. This year 600 AF have been dedicated to the Santa Fe River.

= = Though a few grade structures, bridges and dry river crossings exist on the Santa Fe River the most predominant structure are the reservoirs in the upper watershed. Impoundment of surface water in the upper Santa Fe Watershed began in 1880 withthe construction of Two-Mile Reservoir having the capacity to store 400 acre-feet of water. Today water is detained in two reservoirs, McClure and Nichols with the capacity to store 3,255 and 684.2 acre-feet respectively. (Figure 6) License No. 1677 issues by the Office of the State Engineer allows the storage of up-to 4,000 acre-feet per year within these reservoirs. (City of Santa Fe Water Report (?)) Detained water is treated then flows by gravity to the water distribution system serving the City of Santa Fe. Water is released from the dams to supply a few small acequias (irrigation ditches), when the permitted storage is exceeded or if spring runoff is high.
 * Impacts of River Structures**

= = = = The Santa Fe River has been gauged since 1913 (Grant, 2002) and there are currently 5 active gauges that are used to collect flow data on the river for a better understanding of the Santa Fe River’s flow. These sites are all shown in Figure 6.
 * Effect of Reservoirs on Stream Flow **

tream flow into McClure Reservoir, measured by [|USGS Gage 08315480], is primarily a factor of spring runoff. Spring discharge ranges from 5 to 100 cfs with an approximate duration of 2 months. In wet years water reaches past the San Ysidro Crossing near Agua Fria to the Wastewater Treatment Plant. Reservoirs do not provide for floodwater storage (USFS 2001) so downstream of the floodplain no protection from extreme runoff or flood events exist. As a result of impoundment of surface was the stream hydrograph below the reservoirs has changed. With the removal of spring runoff water the riparian vegetation was not able to survive which destabilized the banks and streambed. With increased urbanization stormwater runoff increased the peak flows and caused erosion and down cutting of the river. The removal of the seasonal runoff also contributed to a reduction is recharge to the aquifer.



Municipal well use within the City of Santa Fe has resulted in a distinct cone of depression just west and southwest of the downtown area. (Johnson, 2005) The city has the right to pump 5,865 acre feet from the municipal well field. Though not considered to cause immediate depletions to surface water, groundwater pumping intercepts recharge that would otherwise contribute to base-flow and spring discharge. Cumulative effects of groundwater pumping adds additional stress to water reliant ecosystems. = =
 * Groundwater Pumping**

**Physical Characterization of the Santa Fe Watershed**

Data has also been collected about the effect of thinning and burning trees in the watershed to improve water quality, yield and protection from crown fires. For more information about where and how this is being done please reference the Grant, 2002 article referenced in this wiki. Efforts have also been made by the local high schools to monitor water quality at the effluent below the wastewater treatment plants. The data collected has been inconsistent in terms of its location, timing and quality assurance (Grant, 2002) so it has not been useful in determining water quality trends. The watershed Advisory Group has also identified areas where there is more data needed to be collected. It is as follows.

> but also biological factors – extending the work of the Bosque del Rio project in the Upper Canyon Road area, to cover the entire river. This information will be critical for prioritizing reaches that require treatment. = = = = Other sources of data include historical imagery provided by multiple source, See Figures 10 and 11 for an example of how this imagery is used to determine historical vs. current watershed states. = =
 * 1) An updated, accurate delineation of the floodplain for the whole Santa Fe River to the Rio Grande.
 * 2) A characterization of the riparian corridor including not just hydrologic factors
 * 1) Monitoring the quantity and quality of stormwater runoff. Stormwater is the most likely source to restore flow in the Santa Fe River, but it will need to be managed to prevent water quality impacts to the riparian ecosystem and the quality of the ground water it recharges. (the arroyos and SF River are not in communication with the groundwater)
 * 2) Development of an overall water budget for the Santa Fe watershed. This would include tracking use by domestic wells.
 * 3) Separating out the contribution of septic tanks to the nutrient loading in the river below the wastewater treatment plant.
 * 4) Monitoring of radionuclides from the reclaimed La Bajada uranium mine area (this has taken place in the past, but irregularly) (Grant, 2002).

= =

= =

= **Water Restoration Projects** =

Description of Some Restoration Projects on the Santa Fe River:

This project had a rough start. The first plans to restore this section of the river begin in 1985, when the newly formed Santa Fe River Committee saw a need of a healthy river. The 1985 plan was never implemented. In 1995 a new plan built upon the 1985 plan and like the 1985 plan it was never implemented. These two earlier plans were used to build the 1996 Trail and Greenway Improvements plan. This project focused on a section of river approximately 2 miles long, between St. Francis Drive and Camino Alire. The main goals of this project were to reduce channel erosion, removal of invasive species, planting of native species and a bike path. Ten years after this project was completed most of the restoration projects continue to function. The channel has become more stable, due to the planting of native species and aggradation is occurring in areas that were extremely incised (Plewa, 2009).
 * The Santa Fe River Channel, Trail and Greenway Improvements, 1996**

This project focused on a 1 mile reach of the river upstream of the Route 599 Bridge. The goal of this project was to add natural meanders to the river to help stimulate a healthier riparian bosque, removal of invasive plant species and planting of native species. They used Rosgen (1994) methodologies to design the meanders in this reach. Two years after the project finished an investigation of the reach showed that the new meander was failing due to the river being constrained too much. Construction quickly followed to widen the channel to reduce the stream power of summer time flows. This quick fix has produced positive results for this reach (Plewa, 2009)
 * Santa Fe River upstream of Route 599, 1997**

The Santa Fe Preserve is located on the site which use to be the Two-Mile reservoir. The Two-Mile reservoir was breached in 1994 due to the safety concerns about the instability of the structure. Enough of the existing structure left behind to allow 10 acre-feet of water to remain, with the intent of turning this area into The Nature Conservancy’s Santa Fe Canyon Preserve. This remaining water has established a healthy ecosystem in the surrounding area (Plewa, 2009).
 * Santa Fe Canyon Preserve, 2000**

After years of zero-fire tolerance management practices, the forests in and around the Santa Fe River have become extremely dense and very susceptible to large stand-replacement fires, see [|Los Conchas Fire]. Fires of this magnitude would severely damage the watershed by damaging the soils and producing high sediment runoffs. These high sediment flows would destroy Santa Fe’s source of 40 percent of their drinking water. To help prevent this, the United States Forest Service set in motion a plan to thin up to 7270 acres (the lower portion of the upper watershed). Between 2002 and 2006, 4600 acres were successfully thinned by either mechanical or hand thinning. By 2009, 5285 total acres have been thinned. The focus of this thinning was to remove undergrowth and trees less than four inches in diameter. This thinning successfully reduced the number of trees per acre from 800-1200 to 100-200. Another positive benefit of forest thinning is an increased amount of snowfall is able to reach the ground, instead of being caught up in the crown of the forest. When the snow is prevented from reaching the ground by being captured by the forest crown the snow is more susceptible to evaporation. An estimated 20 percent increase in annual flow is being produced by the thinned portions of the forest (Plewa, 2009).
 * T[[image:1000afy_Hydrograph.png width="800" height="428" align="left" caption="Figure 12: 1000 AFY Proposed Hydrograph"]]ree Thinning in the Upper Watershed, On Going**

The most ambitious and most rewarding/beneficial restoration project for the Santa Fe River. The goal of this project is to give the river some water rights, 1000 acre feet per year (AFY), under normal/wet conditions. This project has been in the planning stage since 2009. After two community meetings a final plan (subject to modifications to better suit the river) has been adopted in 2012. The four major goals of this project are: 1) Create an Ecologically Healthy Vegetative Corridor, 2) Benefit the Entire Community with Flows, 3) Nurture a Beautiful, Natural Urban Greenspace with water in arid environment and 4) Provide an Educational Resource for Schools & Community Stewardship. In order to fulfill these goals a year round hydrograph was developed that mimics the hydrograph above McClure Reservoir. This hydrograph will allow for a year-round flow to be present in the river. The flow will ramp up to a peak 9cfs in mid-May to simulate a spring pulse event. Another pulse event will occur in early July in order to help sustain vegetation during the driest part of the year. The final proposed Hydrograph is shown below. These values are based on a normal (100%) water year. In drier years the amount of water will be determined by the severity of the drought, i.e. if there is a 25% deficit in water, the amount of water for the river will be reduced by 25%, 750AFY (Water in the Santa Fe River, 2011).
 * The Living River, On Going**

In Appendix A, all of the current and existing projects up to 2002 are listed. In summary projects in the Santa Fe River/Watershed are focused on several physical modifications. To reduce the danger of major crown fires, improve water quality and reduce sediment, the forest service has been working to thin and clear forests to encourage a vigorous grass/forb cover in the watershed. The removal of exotic species is also being conducted to benefit the watershed by enhancing off-channel storage and recharge, and restoring ecological balance. Where invasive exotics take over, in the long run the consequences are erosion and sedimentation. (Grant 2002). River restoration projects include planting of native riparian tree and shrub species; suppression of exotics; creation of low-head check dams and bioengineering works to induce meandering, reduce velocity and increase groundwater recharge; and the use of traditional engineered erosion control structures. (Grant 2002). The City of Santa Fe is also conducting physical modifications of the terrain to reduce the amount of runoff into arroyos which will help to reduce the amount of sediment entering the river.

**Future Restoration of the Santa Fe River**
Restoring the Santa Fe River to a “living river” has been a priority of the City of Santa Fe and Santa Fe County. The city’s decision to restore the Santa Fe River is rooted in ethical, practical, and aesthetic considerations. Many residents, especially families who have lived in the area for generations, feel a sense of stewardship toward the resource that has provided the community its lifeblood for centuries (Borchert, 2010). Restoration efforts have been carefully planned and many projects have been completed or are currently in the process of being implemented to restore the river system.

The once mostly perennial river has been reduced to a dry bed for the majority of the year. Since streamflow gauging downstream of the municipal reservoirs began in 1999, the urban Santa Fe River has been dry on average about 220 days of the year; of those days with flow, 30 percent result from storms (Borchert, 2010). Restoration efforts have included allocating up to an additional 1000 acre-feet of water, restoring riparian habitat through native and exotics, aggrading the riverbed by 7 feet near the St. Francis Drive crossing, and controlling livestock grazing along the floodplain. Each individual endeavor has been enacted in an attempt to return the river to one that contains as close to perennial flows are possible, and able to support a more diverse ecosystem.

Future restoration of the Santa Fe River includes looking outside of the river’s immediate vicinity into the watershed as a whole. The channel was intentionally incised to more than 15 feet in depth in some areas an attempt to carry the flows from storm events. The grade controls had been removed with the conscious intent to cause downcutting in the river in order to create storage for flood flows (Santa Fe River Watershed Restoration Action Strategy, 2012). This resulted in disconnecting the river from its floodplain and took away water storage for the riparian habitat. Connecting the Santa Fe River to the floodplain and providing areas where water can be stored and also recharge the aquifer is important to the future health of the river. Continued efforts need to be made to restore the river to a slope and elevation that will connect with the floodplain, while also looking at the streams and flood channels that carry the storm waters to the river.

Changes to water use regulations is also important to the future of the river’s restoration future. The City of Santa Fe allocated 1000 acre-feet per year of water for flow directly into the Santa Fe River. This allotment was restricted legally by the fact that it could never be stored in the reservoir before being released. This restriction puts restraints on the water that is available. A change in the legal framework of water usage would benefit the river in the future. Studying the floodpulses that are being released and restructuring them in a way to will give the most benefit to the river is another aspect to future restoration. The annual discharge of up to 1000 acre-feet can be adjusted as needed to be timed in a way that will benefit the river the most. These releases should continue to be studied and adjusted as needed to restore the river.

To better support the health of the Santa Fe River in the future, connecting the river with the groundwater table is suggested as goal for water and land managers. A contributing factor of the consistently dry river channel is the fact that the groundwater table has dropped significantly and has subsequently been disconnected from the river completely. In arid environments floods are an important source of water resulting in long-lasting water pools and the recharge of alluvial aquifers (Benito et al., 2011). A decrease in groundwater withdrawals, connecting the river to the floodplain, and a possible plan of injection from the wastewater treatment plant may be a beneficial contribution to the health of the river in the future.

**Conclusion**
The Santa Fe Basin has been occupied for several hundred years serving as an oasis for desert dwellers of the Southwest. Santa Fe was first established with the settlement of the Spanish in the late 1600's and with them, came the implementation of a large-scale irrigation system (acequias) and organized agricultural production. To this day, irrigation is still facilitated by the acequia system and is managed on the tenets set forth in the original systems of the 1700's; the democratic and cooperative use of water for the betterment and benefit of all poeple affected. However, in the past half-century, Santa Fe has experienced a population boom which has resulted in a larger urban area and a higher demand on surface water resources that has ultimately changed the natural conditions of the river. Anthropogenic activites are responsible for changes in the historic stream hydrograph resulting in downcutting, erosion and ailing riparian ecosystems.

Rehabilitation efforts have been primarily focused on tree thinning in the upper watershed to protect the water supply in the municipal reservoirs from the impact of forest fires and to increase the amount of snow making contact with the ground surface. Tree thinning has resulted in a 20% increase in snowmelt that reaches the reservoirs located high in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. The water in these reservoirs is prestine and undergoes minimal treatment if any at all; the citizens of the Santa Fe Basin would like to enhance the forest health around these drinking water supplies to ensure the best quality water for future generations. The city has also made efforts to contain stormwater runoff within the urban area to attenuate peak flows with the goal of reducing erosion and improving water quality. Several low-water crossings within the Santa Fe Riverbed have been eliminated to reduce impacts of automobiles and potential contamination issues in the event of a collision.

The Living River Initiative is an unique and significant effort for Santa Fe and within the greater Southwest; it is history-making and precedent-setting to dedicate a significant portion of a municipality’s potential water supply to the ecological health of the river and to the community benefits that come with it (Water in the Santa Fe River – 1000 AFY, 2011). The intense effort to restore the river should continue to be studied and championed to benefit society as well as the environment. The detrimental changes in the past can be adjusted for a better river in the future.

These are just a few of the iniatives proposed by the people of the Santa Fe Basin and there are numerous potential projects that can work to improve the alpine, urban, and desert environments of the Santa Fe River system. Concern for ecosystem health, quality of drinking water, and the availability of water supplies, today, will help cultivate a culture of water lovers and conservationists tomorrow. Although water managers and city councel members of the basin have a long way to go, progress is being made every year. The Santa Fe River is once again garnering the respect and appreciation it deserves as the 'lifeblood' of the Santa Fe Basin.

**References** = =
 * Ambrose, Jonathan. //Santa Fe River Restoration Project Phase II//. Workplan. Santa Fe: New Mexico State Land Office, 2001. Web. 28 February 2012.
 * Benito, G., et al., 2011. Rainfall-runoff modelling and palaeoflood hydrology applied to reconstruct centennial scale records of flooding and aquifer recharge in ungauged ephemeral rivers. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 15 (2011): 1185-1196. Web. 25 April 2012.
 * Borchert, Claudia and Amy Lewis. "Urban Watershed Management: Sustaining the Santa Fe River." //Southwest Hydrology// (2010): 28-29. Web. 4 April 2012. []
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 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Plewa, Tara. (2010). Sustainable Santa Fe: // Local Traditions of Acequia Culture and Water Resource Use : // 67-73
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 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Spiegel, Z and B. Baldwin. 1963. //Geology and Water Resources of the Santa Fe Area, New Mexico//. US Geological Survey Water –Supply Pater 1525
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 * <span style="color: #000000; display: block; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Wallis, M. (1972). //Lamy:a History.// Santa Fe: Esparanza Publications. []
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">Wasiolek, Maryann, 2004, //Evaluation of the Hydrogeology of the La Cienega Area, Santa Fe County, New Mexico//, Hydroscience Associates, Inc. Unpublished consultants report for the Acequia de la Cienega.
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> [[file:j.1752-1688.2005.tb03760.x.pdf]] WATER SUPPLY OPTIONS IN A NEW MEXICO WATER PLANNING REGION1
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 * Appendix A**: Current and Recently Completed Watershed and River Restoration Projects in the Santa Fe River Watershed.

<span style="color: #f79646; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> <span style="color: #f79646; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 14px;">