Rio+Chama+Group+Project

THE RIO CHAMA WATERSHED: PRESENT STATE, CURRENT MANAGEMENT AND FUTURE RESTORATION POTENTIAL
by: R. Levine, A. Symonds, R. Morrison, M. Sims, and C. McConvill

=Introduction= The Rio Chama watershed is located in northern New Mexico and is the largest tributary of the Rio Grande, draining 8300 square kms and containing 15,348 km of water courses (Figure 1). As the largest contributor to Rio Grande river flows, the Rio Chama should be a high priority basin for water and land management groups. The Rio Chama is a diverse watershed from an ecological point of view, and is now a major conduit for the drinking water of Albuquerque with the advent of the San Juan-Chama project. The San-Juan Chama water makes the Rio Chama unique among southwestern rivers. The project has increased river flows in response to increasing human demand for water. Our paper will attempt to provide a brief overview of the current state of the Rio Chama, the story of how it arrived at its present condition and the future potential for restoration and conservation within the Rio Chama watershed.

=**Physical Basin Description**= The western boundary of the watershed is formed by the Continental Divide and the northeastern edge of the Jemez Mountains. In the east the watershed is hemmed in by the Tusas Mountains and Black Mesa (NM[|OSE]). The Rio Chama headwaters drain the southern San Juan Mountains and the river ends at its confluence with the Rio Grande near Españ ola, NM, incorporating areas with elevations ranging from 13,000 feet to 4,400 feet. The upland areas of the drainage basin are significant contributors to Rio Chama flows, resulting in snowmelt-dominated hydrology. Mean annual precipitation in the basin ranges from 9 – 53 inches with values dependent on elevation ([|NRCS, 2011]). The large tributaries of the Rio Chama that contribute significant flows are, from upstream to downstream, Cañones Creek, Rio Brazos, Rito de Tierra Amarilla, Rio Nutrias, Rio Cebolla, Rio Gallina, Rito de Canjilon, Rio Puerco de Chama, a second Cañones Creek, El Rito, Rio del Oso, Abiquiu Creek, and Rio Ojo Caliente (NM[|OSE]).



Headwaters to El Vado
The headwater areas of the Rio Chama are composed primarily of Proterozoic rock with resistant quartzite forming many of the high peaks in the San Juan Mountains. However, the headwaters region is far from uniform and also contains volcanic and metamorphic rock from various time periods. Lower elevation areas contain rock units that represent the Cretaceous intercontinental seaway: shales, mudstones and sandstones. Specifically, above El Vado the river flows through Cretaceous Mancos Group shale and Mesa Verde Group sandstone. Through these relatively erodible rocks, the river occupies a wide alluvial valley until it encounters the more resistant Cretaceous Dakota sandstone and becomes confined by steep canyon walls. Areas at elevations above the river contain diverse lithologies resulting in bed particle sizes ranging between silt and boulders. However, the dominant particle size ranges from sand to gravel ( Swanson et al., 2012 ).

Middle reach: El Vado to Abiquiu
The section of the Rio Chama between El Vado and Abiquiu is primarily alluvial in character with some bedrock outcrops within the channel (Figure 2). Through this reach, the river runs through a region of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary and volcaniclastic rocks. Tributaries that originate in these relatively easily erodible rocks have the potential to contribute large volumes of sediment to the Rio Chama system ( Persico et al., 2005 ). Riffles and rapids in this reach are primarily associated with tributary debris flows. Tributary junctions are also areas of the channel with sediment discontinuities relative to surrounding sites. At flows below 400 cfs, one third of this reach has a sand bed while gravel and cobbles make up the remaining portion ( Swanson et al., 2012 ).

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Lower reach: Abiqui to Rio Grande confluence
The lower Rio Chama below Abiquiu Reservoir has an average drop of 13.1 feet per mile and cuts through the southeastern Colorado Plateau which consists of high mesas dissected by tributaries of the Rio Chama and its mainstem. Rock units exposed in the lower reach of the river include the Ojo Caliente sandstone, Abiquiu tuff and Lobato basalt (Wells, 2009).

=Fluvial Chronology= During the Pleistocene (2.6 – 0.01 Ma) the headwaters of the Rio Chama were glaciated; the present river has incised through glacial gravel deposits preserving flights of terraces ( Love and Connell, 2005 ). In the upstream reach, which extends from the headwaters to El Vado, it is assumed that there has been little cutting or filling during the Holocene (0.01 Ma - Present), with the lowest terraces corresponding to late Pinedale times of the last glacial (20 – 15 ka for the lowest terrace). The middle reach, however, shows that there has been aggradation between El Vado and Abiquiu during the Holocene (Persico et al., 2005). Weathering of the Chinle, Entrada, and Morrison Formations in tributary basins in this reach are thought to be the source of much of the sediment contributing to Holocene aggradation ( Swanson et al., 2012 ). Terraces greater than 32 m above the modern channel show that there has been net incision, but that in recent, Holocene time aggradation has been a significant component to river evolution in this reach. The lack of buried soil horizons in terraces < 8 m above modern bankfull level show that deposition of sands was rapid during the aggradational period. Very low terraces (1 – 2 m above bankfull modern channel) can possibly be attributed to the closure of El Vado dam in 1935-1936 (Persico et al., 2005).

The reach below Abiqui is characterized by its response to changing base levels at the Rio Grande where landsliding and volcanic activity dammed the Rio Grande through White Rock Canyon causing large fluctuations in water levels (-23m to +346 m above present) ( Reneau and Dethier, 1996 ). There are eleven groups of terraces on this lower section with dates ranging from 3.2 Ma to 19 ka ( Dethier and McCoy, 1993 ; Love and Connell, 2005 ) with the present Rio Chama flowing on gravel deposits just above bedrock. The presence of Lava Creek B ash (620,000 yrs ago) helps to date the terrace stratigraphy of the Rio Chama and shows that intermittent aggradation events, about every 10,000 to 40,000 years, have interrupted a general trend of incision since Lava Creek B ash deposition. Chronology and geologic evidence from latest Pleistocene deposits suggest that the Rio Chama incised about 16 m between approximately 26,000 and 19,000 years ago, but that this incision was episodic ( Dethier and McCoy, 1993 ). That means that throughout the last million years the Rio Chama has at least demonstrated episodic downcutting in response to both climatic forcing and base level controls.

**Ecology **
The Rio Chama Watershed is home to a diverse mix of riparian vegetation, terrestrial species, and aquatic organisms because of the range of elevations present in the basin. The vegetation along the Chama river is dense and characterized by different species of trees and shrubbery. Terrestrial habitats in the watershed include regions of foothills, mountains, sub-alpine, and alpine tundra; vegetation includes aspen, spruce-fir, mixed conifer forest, and tundra meadows; the rivers, streams, wetlands, and lakes of the Rio Chama Watershed supply critical habitat to aquatic species ([|United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 2009]). A Common Resource Area (CRA) map included in a rapid assessment published by the USDA in 2009 delineates geographical areas in the Rio Chama Watershed that share similar resource concerns (Figure 3).

CRA 36.1, 36.2, and 48A.1, as denoted in Figure 3, are defined by the following: 36.1
 * Southwestern plateaus, higher elevation cool subhumid mesas, and higher elevation foothills that indicate the transition to the Southern Rocky Mountains.
 * Frigid temperature regime; ustic moisture regime.
 * Land use consisting primarily of forest and grazing.
 * Vegetation including sagebrush, Gambel oak, and ponderosa pine.

36.2
 * Foothills, lower elevation plateaus, and lower warm semiarid mesas.
 * Mesic temperature regime; ustic to aridic moisture regime.
 * Land use primarily for crops.
 * Vegetation including pinon, juniper, and sagebrush.
 * Elevation range from about 6,000 to 7,000 feet.

48A.1
 * Steep high mountain ranges and associated mountain valleys.
 * Frigid and cryic temperature regime; a ustic to udic moisture regime.
 * Vegetation including sagebrush-grass at low elevations, and coniferous forest to alpine tundra as elevation increases.
 * Elevation range from about 6,500 to 14,400 feet.

Riparian Vegetation
According to, the ecology of the Rio Chama Watershed is defined by characteristics of two different ecoregions - the Southern Rockies and the Arizona and New Mexico Plateaus and Mesas. The portion of the Rio Chama from above Abiquiu Reservoir to the confluence with the Rio Grande falls within the Arizona and New Mexico Plateaus and Mesas ecoregion, which contains high relief plains, low mountains, mixed grasslands, shrubbery, and juniper. The majority of the watershed is characterized by ecology of the Southern Rockies – high mountains and high relief plateaus. Lower elevation vegetation consists of mixed grasses, shrubbery, cottonwood, and willows; as elevation increases, Juniper and Pinon-Juniper are more prevalent, Ponderosa Pine are seen at even higher elevations, and at sub-alpine and alpine levels, mixed conifer are found.

From El Vado Ranch to the headwaters of the Abiquiu Reservoir, the Rio Chama is classified as National Wild and Scenic River – one of four in New Mexico ([|National Wild & Scenic Rivers]). Along some parts of the river in this stretch are canyon reaches that support narrow ribbons of riparian vegetation and alluvial segments. It is noted in the RERI Proposal (2010) that there is limited recruitment of cottonwoods and willows along this reach of the river; additionally, there is notable encroachment by upland vegetation, indicative of limited overbank flood inundation.

There are several invasive species found along the river and roadways within the watershed that include bull thistle, knapweed, Canada thistle, larkspur, chickory, musk, pepperweed, Russian olive, tamarisk, and toadflax (WRAS, 2005). The increased spreading of invasives within the Chama watershed has major implications for native vegetation. Additionally, these non-native species may contribute to reduced soil stability, increased erosion, and increased turbidity and sedimentation (WRAS, 2005). These are all potential areas for restoration.

Terrestrial and Aquatic Organisms
The watershed supports a diverse community of wildlife that includes black bears, cougars, bobcats, mountain lion, mule deer, elk, badgers, beavers, wild turkey, coyotes, raccoons, and snakes ([|USDA, 2009] and [|Southwest Paddler]). At the highest elevations of the watershed, wildlife can include marmot, lynx, bighorn sheep, pika, and white-tailed ptarmigan (USDA, 2009). Avian species seen in the Rio Chama region include ducks, dippers, spotted sandpipers, Canadian geese, turkey, golden eagles, bald eagles, falcons, hawks, owls, and turkey buzzards. The Chama River is home to a wide range of aquatic species that include brown trout, rainbow trout, flathead chub, flathead minnows, white suckers, carp, channel catfish, black crappie, and longnose dace (Southwest Paddler). Endangered species that might be found in the Rio Chama Watershed include the eagle, Canada lynx, greater sandhill crane, Gunnison's prairie dog, Mexican spotted owl, Rio Grande chub, Southwestern willow flycatcher, and the western yellow-billed cuckoo (USDA, 2009). **Water Quality ** The New Mexico Environment Deparatment ([|NMED]) Surface Water Quality Bureau (Bureau) has sampled water throughout the Chama watershed and identified a number of stream segments that do not meet state standards for reasons that include turbidity from soil erosion, stream bottom deposits, water temperature that affects instream biota, dissolved oxygen, undesired levels of aluminum, ammonia, phosporous, and fecal coliform (WRAS, 2005). Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) for stream reaches in the upper portion of the watershed were established in 2003 and for lower portions of the watershed in 2004. Water quality concerns in the Chama watershed stem from issues related to channelization and erosion, land development, community sewage treatment facilities, and build-up of hazerdous fuels that could cause wildfires (WRAS, 2005). Figure 4 below shows the impaired reaches of the watershed as designated by the NMED Bureau.



Dependence on Riverine Systems
Reliance on the Chama River by people inhabiting the land has evolved greatly over time. Before 1850, Native Americans depended on the river for hunting and as a trading route to Spanish settlements downstream (Swanson et al., 2012). Railroad construction that started in the 1880s brought significant change to the upper Rio Chama Valley, expanding such industries as lumber and ranching. A series of bad winters during the Great Depression greatly reduced the number of sheep and cattle in the 1930s and forestry in the region declined gradually until it ended in the 1960s (Swanson et al., 2012). Historical changes in land use (namely roads and grazing) and reliance on water along the downstream portion of the river have been less drastic than those seen upstream.

Today, the Upper Rio Chama watershed has very little urban development. Its primary uses include ranching, forestry, agriculture, recreation, and tourism (Swanson et al., 2012). A number of irrigation canals divert water from the Rio Chama for agriculture; also found along the river and its tributaries are several active and inactive gravel mines. A significant portion of the river between El Vado Dam and Abiquiu Reservoir is designated as Wild and Scenic River.

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: arial,helvetica,sans-serif;">The [|USDA's 2009 rapid assessment] includes a breakdown of land use within both the Colorado and New Mexico regions (Table 1). According to the rapid assessment, cropland accounts for about 1.2% of land use in the New Mexico portion of the watershed.



=Modern History of the Land= The history of water and land use in the Rio Chama Basin does not start with the installation of dams or the use of the land for mineral extraction or agriculture. It begins thousands of years ago when Native Americans settled these lands and used the streams and rivers to sustain their cultures. Starting in the 1500s the Spanish increased those sustenance activities to included grazing, mining, and logging. They also substantially increased the on water diversion for agriculture with the use of [|acequias] (a traditional community owned irrigation ditch). While these land use practices presumably had large impacts on the land, modern development, with the installation of major impoundments and diversions, has had the most profound impact on modern water resources in the basin, and therefore will be the main focus within this report.

**Land ownership**
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The history of land ownership is complex in the Chama valley. Starting in the 1600s land grants were petitioned by settlers and issued by the Spanish rule in order to establish settlements. These grants were of three main types: Pueblo, private, and community. Of these, the community grants had the most effect on the watershed. Early settlers were allowed to graze cattle and collect resources such as wood ( Torrez, 1997 ). This resulted in massive clear cutting of some forested areas. Many of the grants were reallocated to private and public holdings during the 18th and 19th centuries, in part due to the fact that the federal government did not recognize land grants; however, several grants still exist within the Chama basin, such as the San Joaquin de Rio Chama Grant and the Abiquiu Grant. Currently, 54% <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">of the land in the Chama Watershed <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">is managed by the US Forest Service (USFS) and Bureau of Land Management (BLM), 4% is managed by state agencies, 12% <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">is held in trust for Native Americans, and 28% is owned privately (NRCS, 2011).

**Logging and Mining Operations**
The arrival of the Rio Grande Railroad in the valley in 1880 caused an increase in mining and timber harvest activities. In the 1960s timber harvesting declined due to depleted resources. The USGS lists 234 mines in its database of geographical places (USGS, 2012), but according to the New Mexico Energy Minerals and Natural Resource Department there are currently only eleven active mines in Rio Arriba County ([|EMNRD, 2012]). Eight of the mines are aggregate and the rest are pumice and scoria mines. In addition to these mines there is one gold mine underdevelopment in the southern part of the basin, east of Abiquiu. The western half of the county has numerous oil and gas operations, though most of these are in the San Juan River Basin.

**Agriculture and Livestock**
<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Sheep and cattle ranching were the primary agricultural activities in the basin for much of its history, though sheep ranching was the dominant of these two throughout New Mexico. Sheep were used for sustenance (food and fiber) and as an exportable product (Merlan, 2008). The sheep industry was in a state of decline by the 1930s due to extreme winters and the Great Depression. By the early 19th century much of the land throughout New Mexico had been heavily grazed and was highly degraded. This led to the federal protection of the land and the establishment of forest reserves, many of which were former Hispanic land grants. What would become the Santa Fe and Carson National Forests, which lie partially in the Rio Chama Basin, were two of these reserves. Currently, only about 1% of the watershed is used for pasture/hay and row crops (NRCS, 2011).

=Dams and Water Diversion Projects=

**Heron Reservoir**
Named for Keneth A. Heron, an engineer in the early 1900s, Heron dam is located on Willow Creek near its confluence with the Rio Chama. Dam construction began in 1967 as part of the San Juan-Chama Project (SJC) and was completed in 1971. The dam stands 269 feet tall and is 1,220 feet in length. Its main purpose is to store SJC water ([|Reclamation, Heron, 2008]). SJC water is the only water stored in the reservoir; no native waters are retained. Heron can provide up to 96,000 acre feet of SJC water per year (firm yield) (Reclamation, Heron, 2008). A secondary purpose of the reservoir is recreation. Managed by the New Mexico State Parks, the reservoir provides recreational opportunities that include camping, boating, hiking, and fishing.

**El Vado**
Originally built by the Middle Rio Grande Conservancy District ([|MRGCD]), El Vado Dam was completed in 1935. El Vado is located on the Rio Chama, approximately 17 miles west of Tierra Amarilla, NM. As part of the Middle Rio Grande Project and aimed at improving the economy of the middle Rio Grande and controlling sediment, the dam was rehabilitated in 1954 and 1955 by the Bureau of Reclamation ([|Reclamation, MRG project, 2009]). New outlet works were added in 1965 in order to accommodate SJC waters. The dam is currently owned by the Bureau of Reclamation; however, operations are supervised by the MRGCD. The dam is 229 ft tall, 1326 ft across and can hold a maximum of 196,000 acre feet of water. The primary purpose of the dam is water storage and flood control, with secondary purposes of sediment control and recreation ([|Reclamation, El Vado, 2005]). Recreational activities are managed by the New Mexico State Parks. According to the NM State Parks website, El Vado Reservoir provides wintering grounds for Bald Eagles, red-tailed hawks, water ouzels, and ospreys.



**Abiquiu**
Abiquiu reservoir is located on the Rio Chama approximately 40 km upstream from its confluence with the Rio Grande. The dam was completed in 1963 for the purpose of storing SJC project waters. It can safely store up to 1.2 million acre feet of water. Current operation plans call for all native waters to pass through Abiquiu, though technically native water could be stored with institutional approval or for flood control. Abiquiu also serves the purpose of sediment control and provides recreational opportunities ([|Reclamation, Abiquiu, 2007]). The reservoir and dam are currently operated by the Army Corps of Engineers.


 * = ** Dam Name ** ||= ** Year Completed ** ||= ** Owner/Operator ** ||= ** Capacity **
 * (maximum) ** ||= ** Stream Capacity (down stream) ** ||= ** Main Purpose ** ||
 * = Heron ||= 1971 ||= Bureau of Reclamation ||= 401,000 acre feet ||= 6,000 cfs ||= San Juan-Chama Project Water Storage ||
 * = El Vado ||= 1935 ||= Bureau of Reclamation ||= 196,500 acre feet ||= 4,000 cfs ||= Water storage and flood control ||
 * = Abiquiu ||= 1963 ||= Army Corps of Engineers ||= 1,192,800 acre feet ||= 1,800 cfs ||= San Juan-Chama storage and flood control ||

**Rio Grande Compact**
The Rio Grande Compact, signed in 1938, is an agreement between the states of New Mexico, Colorado, and Texas that divides the water of the Rio Grande between the three states. All waters above Ft. Quitman, Texas are included in the compact. Commissions appointed from each state meet yearly to discuss water delivery logistics and accounting. Debits and credits can be carried over from year to as part of the compact, enabling states to buffer the amount water available due to climate variability. Serving as the commission secretary, the USGS prepares periodic reports for the commission ([|NMOSE, 2005]).

**San Juan-Chama Project**
Following WWII, the middle Rio Grande region became one of the fastest growing areas in the nation. The sudden increase in population put stress on an already overburdened and drought prone river basin. The water in the Rio Grande was fully appropriated in the Rio Grande Compact (RGC), so water needed to be sourced from outside of the basin. The Rio Grande Compact first introduced the idea of diverting water from the San Juan Basin to the Rio Grande Basin, but no field assessments was ever completed. A 1946 a report by the Bureau of Reclamation established that New Mexico had rights to 800,000 acre feet of Colorado River Basin water. By 1955 two projects, the Navajo Indian Irrigation Project (NIIP) and San Juan-Chama Project, had proposed plans for the water. The NIIP and SJP requested 778,000 and 235,000 acre feet respectively. Congress could not approve either project until feasibility studies were completed and rites to the water were negotiated. On June 13, 1961 both projects were signed into law by President John F. Kennedy. The final bill allocated 110,000 acre feet per year for the SJP (Glaser, 2010).

** Water Management Impacts to the Rio Chama ** Like most river systems in the U.S., the Rio Chama has been impacted by numerous management policies and operations. These include reservoir storage, water diversion, pulse water releases for rafting, hydropower generation, and trans-basin delivery of water as part of the San Juan-Chama Project. Separating the individual effects of these operations can be difficult, but the general consequences of current water management decisions are discernible. ** Dams ** As discussed earlier, three dams exist on the Rio Chama: Heron, El Vado, and Abiquiu Dams. Although Heron Dam is located on Willow Creek, a tributary to the Rio Chama, it stores and releases additional water into the Rio Chama as part of the San Juan-Chama Project. The largest impact of these dams (excluding effects from the San Juan-Chama Project) has been a "squashing" of the natural hydrograph. Average base flow magnitudes have increased from consistent year-round deliveries of water, and peak flow magnitudes have decreased due to flow attenuation in the reservoirs (Morrison, 2012). This impact can be seen in Figure 6. An additional impact of the dams has been a reduction in flow variability within the system. Because the dams are operated on a mostly predictable schedule, release schedules and magnitudes do not vary much between years. Figure 6 shows how the altered hydrology includes similar release patterns each year compared to the unaltered hydrology. A noticeable ecological impact of peak flow reductions is the encroachment of upland vegetation and overall increased vegetation along the river banks. Sand bars and low terraces were once largely void of significant vegetation due to scouring during high flows. Based on field observations and historic aerial photography, willow and juniper species have been established in these areas now that flows rarely overtop the channel banks. In addition, due to a reduction in peak flows, field observations suggest that sediment transport rates within the Rio Chama between El Vado and Abiquiu Dams have decreased. Sediment input from tributaries, most notably the Rio Gallino and Rio Cebolla, has accumulated since the construction of El Vado, leading to a net aggregation within the channel. This is especially true at the confluence of the Rio Gallino, where the channel gradient is less steep than the canyon section of river upstream.

** San-Juan Chama Project ** The San Juan-Chama Project authorizes the transfer of approximately 110,000 acre-feet of water each year from the Upper Colorado basin to the Rio Grande basin. Water is transported through the continental divide via five tunnels and stored in Heron Reservoir until called upon by water owners to be sent downstream to the Rio Grande (Glaser, 2010). The net effect of the San Juan-Chama Project has been an increase in historical water volumes flowing through the Rio Chama. Average annual flows between 1971 and 2010 have increased from 360 cfs to 465 cfs—nearly a 30% increase—since the introduction of the Project. Base flows have also increased by approximately 30% during the same period (Morrison, 2012). ** Hydropower ** The hydropower plants at El Vado and Abiquiu Dams are run-of-the-river facilities, meaning power is generated using whatever flows happen to be passing through the penstock at any given time. Reservoir releases are currently not prioritized for hydropower production. Consequently, hydropower production on the Rio Chama has little impact on the river's hydrology and ecology beyond the effects of those already described for El Vado and Abiquiu Dams. The Los Alamos Public Utility District, owners of the power facilities, would like greater control over releases in order to optimize power generation at the dams. If this occurs, it is expected that flows in the system would fluctuate more as power is generated when demand is highest. ** Recreational releases ** Between July and September, weekend flows are increased to accommodate recreational and commercial rafters on the river. To ensure adequate depths in the river, flow rates typically exceed 600 cfs for a period of three days. After weekend boats leave the river, flows are quickly reduced to approximately 100 cfs. Rafting flow operations on the Rio Chama cause frequent and sudden increase/decreases in discharge, rather than a natural high-discharge hydrograph that peaks quickly but has a long recession limb. Few restoration projects have occurred on the Rio Chama, likely because the upper reach of the river is still relatively pristine compared to other managed systems in New Mexico, though there are eighteen stream segments (mostly tributaries) that don't meet state standards for TMDLs and load allocations under the Clean Water Act. Interest in protecting and enhancing the river has recently led to studies on how to optimize management operations. Most notably, the Rio Chama Optimization Project, funded by the River Ecosystem Restoration Initiative (RERI), is currently in progress. In collaboration with the RERI project team, research at the University of New Mexico is examining ecological-management connection using a systems dynamic framework. ** River Ecosystem Restoration Initiative ** According to the RERI proposal, "the goal of the Rio Chama Flow Optimization Project is to create a program for conducting water operations so as to optimize sediment transport, channel dynamics and ecological function of a 30 mile reach of the Rio Chama that has been diminished by dam-controlled flows" (RERI, 2010). Research objectives include: The RERI project team is composed of a wide variety of professionals, including biologists, geomorphologists, and researchers from private and public organizations. A key component of this research effort is to include stakeholders in the planning process and ensure their input is incorporated into the project. ** Holistic Management Approach ** Leveraging the efforts of the RERI project, research at the University of New Mexico is focused on developing methods for managing water uses on the Rio Chama in a more holistic manner. Due to a lack of regulatory requirements on the Rio Chama (e.g., stipulations for the Endangered Species Act or Clean Water Act), a unique opportunity exists for improving operation strategies unhampered by regulatory constraints. Consequently, the array of options available for exploring the trade-offs between multiple uses and benefits within a holistic framework is wide open. This research will integrate various components of the existing study and allowing ecological, geomorphic, and social aspects of the project into a decision support tool. The support tool will provide alternative flow regimes expected under future climate change and their predicted effects on various basin needs, including ecological, hydropower generation, water delivery, recreational angling, and whitewater boating.
 * Current Restoration Efforts on the Rio Chama **
 * 1) Conceptually model Rio Chama ecology and its management institutions.
 * 2) Establish environmental flow as a management objective.
 * 3) Discover an optimal, “win-win” scenario for the whole range of values the Rio Chama supports.
 * 4) Assure inclusion of stakeholders (via a series of workshops which involve water users, including irrigators, municipal suppliers, Pueblos and recreationists). Convene interests into a collaborative process of (informal) self- designed operational rule-setting, to protect individual interests.
 * 5) Develop an idealized ecological flow “prescription” (using Index of Hydrologic Alteration, or mutually-acceptible, holistic instream flow methodology).
 * 6) Synthesize ecological and user-generated flow parameters; develop and implement a multiple purpose, optimized hydrograph, incorporating current year snowpack data, to inform Reclamation’s Annual Operating Plan.
 * 7) Apply adaptive management, (defining objectives for action, scrutinizing results and defining later actions to follow from observed change).
 * 8) Monitor and document ecosystem change (enlisting stakeholders to review monitoring data and express socio-political levels of satisfaction, identify “unintended consequences’ resulting from the optimized operations).
 * 9) Maximize ecological improvement vs. geomorphic and biological measures.

Restoration Potential on the Rio Chama
As mentioned in the previous section, the Chama is relatively pristine when compared to many other systems in New Mexico. Despite relatively limited human impacts, the Chama watershed was identified in New Mexico's Unified Watershed Assessment (UWA) as a Category I watershed: a watershed in urgent need of restoration. There are 18 stream segments throughout the Chama watershed that do not meet state standards for TMDLs established by the New Mexico Environment Department Surface Water Quality Bureau as part of section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act. 12 of the 18 systems have TMDLS established while the remaining 6 are pending. The Clean Water Action Plan requires states to prepare a Watershed Restoration Action Strategy (WRAS) to determine sources of contamination and determine a plan of action. Impairments determined were high turbidity, temperature, bottom deposits, chronic Aluminum, fecal coliform, and total ammonia. There was also concern expressed about bank stability. Much of these issues can be tied back to land use; as seen in Figure 4 the greatest land use by acreage is rangeland, which, when not managed properly, can cause loss of riparian vegetation, increased habitat for invasives, and bank degredation that leads to increased sedimentation and erosion. The Meridian Institute was solicited to facilitate outreach and coordinate the formation of watershed groups to address problems found in the tributary sub-watersheds. In February 2004 a public meeting of land owners, water user groups, local government, state and federal agencies, as well as community and environmental groups met and divided the watershed was divided into four sub-watersheds:
 * 1) Upper Chama Sub-Watershed Group (Tierra Amarilla to CO border)
 * 2) Rios Nutrias, Cebolla and Canjilon Sub-Watershed Group
 * 3) El Rito Creek and Rios Vallecitos, Tusas, and Ojo Caliente Sub-Watershed Group
 * 4) Gallina, Coyote, Abiquiu Sub-Watershed Group

Goals established for the watersheds include:
 * Improve water quality
 * Maintain and preserve traditional and cultural uses of land
 * Improve overall ecosystem health
 * Reduce soil erosion
 * Conduct outreach to stakeholders and provide a forum for people to participate
 * Preserve key species such a the Rio Grande Cutthroat Trout, Silvery Minnow, and the Southwest Willow Flycatcher
 * Reduce fire hazard to rural communities
 * Improve landscape
 * Recognize the cultural ecology of the area and sustainable water practices
 * Have a safer, healthier watershed
 * Conduct resource planning to improve natural resources

**Upper Chama Sub-Watershed Group**
Temperature is listed as a problem for every tributary listed in the Upper Chama Sub-Watershed. This subwatershed is upstream of the confluence of the Rio Chama and Willow Creek and before Heron Reservoir. Increased home development in this area has led to increased pressure on riparian areas; increased temperature and bank instability are direct consequences of this. Housing developments near the river have also caused increases in runoff from paved areas. Improvements to the riparian area such as planting Cottonwoods and willows along with fencing can help mitigate all of these problems. Vegetation will help stabilize the banks while providing shade to the river that will reduce the temperature. A healthy riparian zone will also better buffer and filter runoff from the surrounding developments.

Rios Nutrias, Cebolla and Canjilon Sub-Watershed Group
The Rios Nutrias, Lower Rio Cebolla, Lopez Canyon, and Canjilon exceed the TMDL for turbidity and have been incised. Native riparian vegetation has been replaced by highland vegetation and brush (sage, juniper) that has encroached and in some areas is overgrown, creating a fire hazard as well as possibly increasing sheet erosion. Improvements to rangeland management would significantly improve the health of the riparian and upland zones as well and limit bank destabilization by increasing the ability to store moisture and filter sediment runoff.

Rios Tusas, Vallecitos, Ojo Caliente & El Rito Watershed
The most detrimental influence in this area is human recreation. Erosion and bank instability from off-road vehicles and the use of informal trails have reduced the protective riparian vegetation and increased erosion and runoff. There is also pollution from outdoor toilets as well as high levels of aluminum, possibly from either an abandoned mine or from naturally occurring aluminum in clay soils. Stabilizing the banks would be a good step, but public education would be necessary to minimize off-road and off-trail recreation. Another option would be to move camping facilities away from the watershed. Revegetating the riparian areas would further stabilize the banks. Upland, the opposite is required; brush accumulation has created a fire hazard that needs to be thinned. Without thinning, natural fires become more intense and burn the landscape more severely which increases overland flow and decreases infiltration since there is no vegetation to intercept it.

===Lower Chama Subwatershed (includes Rios Gallina; Capulin; Clear Creek; Cecilia Canyon; Rio Pierco de Chama; Poleo & Coyote Creeks; Ritos Encino, Resumidero, and Redondo; and Canones, Polvadera, & Abiqui Creeks)=== Many of the impairments in this subwatershed are a result of bank instability and lack of a natural riparian system. Invasive and highland species have encroached, limiting native riparian species. Reducing invasive species and planting cottonwoods and willows as well as native grasses will help stabilize the banks, decrease sediment runoff, and help regulate the water temperature by providing shade. Adding meanders back to Abiquiu Creek, which was straightened several generations ago, might improve bank storage and lead to more riparian vegetation to cool the stream.

Watershed-Wide
Educating the public on the effects of human impact would be a good first step towards improving the health of the Chama watershed. One important watershed wide push is focused on brush and forest management. Fuel management is important for the entire system, especially considering the impacts that the Las Conchas fire had on the watershed. There are varying severities of fires, ranging from those that merely scorch the grasses to those that destroy the canopy and sterilize the soil. Obviously, severe fires will impact water quality and biological integrity.

**Conclusion** It is clear that although the Rio Chama is relatively pristine, there are many opportunities for restoration and further research. The ecology of the watershed has been impacted significantly by damming of the river, excessive grazing, and problems that have resulted from anthropogenic influence. Although some of these impacts are well understood, there is still much that we do not understand, such as the morphological effects of the dams and how the addition of extra San Juan-Chama water impacts aspects of the watershed. Impairments in the watershed, coupled with the impacts of continued climate change, are likely to further damage the ecological integrity of the watershed, so a better understanding of river impacts is a useful first step. Many river systems are constrained by development, which makes restoration impractical and costly in many instances, but because much of the Rio Chama watershed is undeveloped and pristine, we have the opportunity to address restoration concerns before there are even more major hurdles to overcome.

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