Pecos+Restoration+Project


 * PECOS RIVER **


 * Introduction **

The Pecos River is located in eastern New Mexico and its headwaters begin on the east side of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. The river continues south exiting NM shortly after passing the city of Carlsbad in the south-east corner of the state, where it then flows into Texas and eventually discharges into the Rio Grande near Del Rio. The Pecos runs for 1,490 km (926 mi.) while it drops about 3,350 m (11,000 ft.) from its headwaters to its meeting point with the Rio Grande. The Pecos Basin covers approximately 113,960 km2 (44,000 mi2) and has a mean discharge of 2 m3/s (about 70 ft3/s) (USGS, 1990 & Benke, 2005). The basin reaches into three physiographic provinces: 1. north of the basin are the Southern Rocky Mountains, 2. southwest of the basin are the Basin and Range, and 3. just west of the Pecos River the Great Plains begin. It is broken into three sub-basins per the Rio Pecos Compact defining the distribution of is waters. The “Upper basin” of the Pecos river system has rights to 5,000 acre feet for domestic use, the “Middle basin” has rights to divert and use sufficient water for 76,000 acres of land, and Texas has access to all natural flows of the “Lower basin” (PRC, 1940). Within the Pecos Basin three major biotic communities exist: temperate mountain forests, temperate grasslands, and deserts. Mean precipitation within the basin is about 28 cm or 11 in. The mean air and water temperatures are approximately 18°C and 21°C (64°F and 70°F), respectively (Benke, 2005).

The Pecos River compact was amended in 1988 due to a short fall in delivery by New Mexico from 1952-1983 of approximately 10,000 acre-ft. annually (McCord, 2004), primarily from a reduction in base inflows. The US Supreme Court in 1988 determined that an accrual of debt is prohibited, but an accrual of credit is allowed. The Supreme Court also required that a Water Master position be implemented to confirm the compact obligations were being met, and upheld that the shortfall could not be met monetarily, but with supply of water. The Water Masters first order of business was to determine if New Mexico was meeting its obligations as stated in the compact. After the Water Masters reported its findings, it also proposed a plan that the State of New Mexico would increase its delivery to fulfill the shortfall. The plan required rapid repayment, no net delivery shortfall was allowed and non-compliance could result in loss of control of the State’s water resources (US SC, 1988).

In 2003, a settlement of the disputed water rights was reached to assist New Mexico in meeting the increasing demands on the river system, as well as, the obligations of the Pecos River compact. The settlement worked out a plan for the State of New Mexico (McCord, 2004): The purposed plan would attempt to create a credit to alleviate stresses and shortfall deliveries during drought years.
 * Purchase senior water rights of retired acres
 * Ground water pumping to augment the Pecos river flow, by purchasing irrigated farmland in the Carlsbad and Roswell area and halt irrigation
 * The Carlsbad Irrigation district assisted in the settlement by providing releases of water shares from storage, and in return was allowed to increase its irrigated farm land


 * History of the Pecos River **

The Pecos River was originally named the Rio Cicuyé by Europeans who wrecked their ship in Galveston in 1528 and afterwards wandered across the southwest running into the great Pecos River and eventually ending up in Mexico City. In 1583, Antonio de Espejo called it “the river of cows” because of the buffalo herds he encountered along the Pecos as he followed the river on his return to Mexico. Gaspar Castano de Sosa re-named the river the Rio Salado in 1590 as he passed by, but the river’s final name change occurred when it was re-named after the famous pueblo it flowed near, the Pecos, taking the name “Pecos River” (Julyan, 1998).

Human habitation dates back to the Clovis culture of Paleo-Indians who worked as hunter gatherers. The Pecos Basin is mostly dominated by rangelands and grasslands which explains why the Paleo-Indians chose this region as their home. The headwaters of the basin are of higher gradient than other rivers in the same region, and its hydrology is dominated by spring snowmelt (Benke, 2005). Originally wood, also called snags, was a natural feature within the rivers located in this region, but snag boats removed the fallen trees from the rivers to allow for recreational and commercial navigation without hazards. Removal of these snags decreased overall biodiversity and faunal productivity as a result of a decrease in habitat (Benke, 2005).

The earliest surviving map of the Pecos River is the map of the Trans-Mississippi interior of the United States. It was titled “Mapa Del Neuvo Mexico” (**Figure 2**), drawn by Enrico Martinez in 1602, and it labeled the river as the Rio Salado.



This was because the water in the river was mildly brackish and the Spanish knew of the tendency of the river to increase in alkaline salinity as it flowed southward towards the Rio Grande (Morris, 2008). In the 1700’s the Rio Salado name was excused for a more fitting “Rio Puerco”, as this defined the river for its muddy waters.

During the late 18th century settlers began colonizing the headwaters of the Pecos River. In 1821 a land grant was issued which began the Santa Fe Trail on the Gallinas River tributary of the Pecos. Following the trail, settlers rushed in around the 1850’s and soon a new military outpost was created at Fort Sumner, near Bosque Redondo. The Bosque Redondo was located at the site of a large oxbow lake which was used as a trading post by the native tribes. Even after Anglos constructed the military post, colonization remained along the upper reaches of the Pecos River. Settlement was evident in a map drawn by H.D. Rogers in 1857 (**Figure 3**), which showed the headwaters were colonized along with several campgrounds near the Bosque Redondo (near Fort Sumner) and Bosque Grande (near modern Roswell) (Rogers, 1857).



The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1849 allowed the Europeans to begin exploring the Pecos Basin region. When a map was created at this time the river retained its name of “Pecos River” (Morris, 2008). The Americans began to arrive in the 1830’s and 40’s, and helped in documenting the death of Pecos Pueblo.

Originally, Americans that arrived to the Pecos area left just as quickly; crossing the Pecos River to head into California as gold diggers. These travelers depicted the area as arid and the river as “treacherous and difficult watercourse,” where many lives were lost in attempts to cross the river and advance westward (Morris, 2008). To promote settling the U.S. Army built Fort Sumner in 1862 and General James H. Carleton used this post to attract Navajos. Once “interned” the Navajos where educated and turned into agriculturalists. After the General’s failed attempt to civilize the natives and colonize the Pecos Valley, the fort was abandoned.

Following in the General’s footsteps, Charles Eddy, James Hagerman, and Francis Tracy began to build an irrigation empire in the 1880’s and 90’s (Morris, 2008). The three were the masterminds behind taming and damming the Pecos River near Carlsbad with the McMillan Dam, Avalon Dam, and Carlsbad Flume. There were two major flood events, 1893 and 1904, which demonstrated the ferocity of a desert river such as the Pecos. The 1893 flood demolished the Avalon Dam which was built in 1888 and damaged the McMillan Dam and the Carlsbad Flume. Avalon Dam was re-built and the McMillan Dam and Carlsbad Flume were both repaired only to see the forces of the 1904 flood. This flood again destroyed the Avalon Dam and severely damaged McMillan Dam, but on the bright side the Carlsbad Flume remained in a rather good condition (Hall, 2002). Irrigation was essential to encourage settlement and in the early 1900’s the Pecos River was “almost completely subdued” by several dams. All together four dams were built, the Sumner Dam, McMillan Dam, Avalon Dam, and Red Bluff Dam, completely altering the regional hydrography in order to provide irrigation (Morris, 2008).

Hydraulic engineering enabled settlers to colonize the Pecos Valley, allowing the floodplains to be worked in Artesia as a result of McMillan Dam (**Figure 4**). “Ditches” allowed irrigation for growth of alfalfa near Fort Sumner, which can be seen in the 1910 image (**Figure 5**). The southeastern portion of the Pecos River proved difficult to settle because of the alkaline waters, and diversion of headwaters in New Mexico. In the early 1900’s travelers attempted to settle in the Texas Pecos Valley using pumps to remove water from the river to irrigate their crops. These settlers of Porterville were unsuccessful and the city died in the early 1910’s (Morris, 2008).





William E. Smythe was an investor who boasted the climate, resources, and fruitfulness of the western lands. “He claimed that when irrigated, the rich soils of the arid West produced four to ten times as much as Eastern soils without irrigation” (Bogener, 1997), although close to ninety percent of irrigation companies went out of business around the 1900’s. Business failures were attributed to lack in design and construction of the irrigation structures, alakali soils, short growing seasons, poor drainage, and an overestimate on the water resources in the arid West. That is, until the Bureau of Reclamation took on the Carlsbad project in 1905 to re-design and re-construct irrigation canals and reservoirs. The Bureau set up an office and established itself for the long run, while attempting to halt efforts by landowners and corporations to rake in profits at the expense of local farmers. Investors, such as Francis Tracy, heckled the Bureau to make improvements on their local projects because they needed to profit from their irrigated land sales. The Bureau responded by working on projects in an order based on the amount of political pressure that came down from the government and local entities, the necessity of each project, and its own priorities to protect the residents of Carlsbad from flooding and to provide the residents with irrigated water. Essentially, the Reclamation came in to serve as a “judge” for water right determination while re-designing the hydraulic features (Bogener, 1997). After re-habilitating the Carlsbad irrigation and reservoir system the Bureau turned the operation over to the Carlsbad Irrigation District in 1930. The end result was 25,000 acres of irrigated land, down from the previous investor’s vision of 100,000 acres, of which not all were irrigated every year.

As seven passengers flew over New Mexico touring the Pecos River Basin in May of 1976, they couldn’t help but notice the difference between the upper basin near Pecos and the middle basin near Roswell. In the upper basin agricultural lands were clustered near the Pecos River to allow for irrigation through shared canals, whereas agricultural fields in the middle basin were more widely dispersed away from the river due to their reliance on groundwater wells. The passengers also noticed almost all tributaries running from the Sacramento Mountains, except for the Rio Hondo, went dry before reaching the Pecos River (Hall, 2002). In the Roswell Basin these passengers visited “The Oasis”, a seven hundred acre farm irrigated by artesian groundwater. Further south in Carlsbad, the group noticed a difference in farming. These agricultural fields needed both groundwater and surface water to supply the right amount of irrigation. Just 60 miles downstream of Carlsbad the Pecos River ran into Texas where the land went barren around the river. This was due to the salt load the Pecos picked up as it ran through the Malaga Bend (Hall, 2002).

The Pecos ecoregion is considered to be outstanding in its biological attributes, although it has been considered vulnerable. Within the next 20 years it is expected that the Pecos ecoregion will become endangered (Abell et al, 2000). This is a result of major threats to the region which include: urban development, wastewater effluent, water extraction, and agricultural demand. The Pecos River disappears in places where it flows into porous rock layers and then emerges again further downstream, and before it joins the Rio Grande the Pecos River runs through steep and twisting canyons (Benke, 2005). “Water delivery from New Mexico to Texas from the Pecos has been contentious over the years, as the river is heavily appropriated for agricultural and urban use” (Hayter, 2002). The Pecos Basin is extremely arid, has high evapotranspiration rates, and large water extractions for agriculture which result in the river discharging the measly 2 m3/s (71 cfs) into the Rio Grande where the two rivers meet (Benke, 2005).

The Pecos River dams controlling the river and providing water for irrigation include: Alamogordo Dam (1937), Avalon Dam (1907), McMillan Dam (1908), part of the Carlsbad Reclamation Project, and Red Bluff Dam (1936).Alamogordo dam was built in 1936-1937 by the Bureau of Reclamation for the Carlsbad Irrigation District (McLemore, 1998). The dam is at the intersection of Alamogordo and the Pecos River, and it forms the Sumner Lake approximately 16 miles northwest of Fort Sumner. The dam had its name changed from Alamogordo to Sumner in 1974 to avoid confusion with the town of Alamogordo (McLemore, 1998). Avalon dam is located north of Carlsbad in Eddy County. The dam was first built in 1888 to divert water for irrigation purposes as part of the Carlsbad Irrigation project. The dam has gone through multiple reconstructions due to flooding (in 1893 and 1904) and the dam height was increased in 1936. The dam original storage capacity was 7,000 acre-feet and a resurvey in 1996 shows its capacity at 4,466 acre-feet (US DOI, 2009).McMillan Dam was constructed to assist the Avalon dam for water management as a part of the Carlsbad Project. The dam is 14 miles north of Carlsbad and was initially constructed for private purposes in 1893 and was rehabilitated by the Bureau of Reclamation in 1908 (US DOI, 2009).Red Bluff Dam is on the boarder of New Mexico Texas, creating the Red Bluff reservoir that extends from Eddy County, New Mexico into Reeves and Loving counties in Texas (Delmar, 2012). The reservoir was created when the West Texas Reclamation Association petitioned the Department of Interior requesting aid in 1914, since the Pecos River already had ten diversions by this time (Delmar, 2012). The reservoir has a capacity of 307,000 acre-feet and is used for irrigation and hydroelectric power for West Texas (Delmar, 2012).
 * Dams **


 * Impacts on the Pecos River **

Several factors including evapotranspiration, seepage of water into the underlying aquifer, salinity, and irrigation diversions have diminished the quality and quantity of the Pecos River water (Boroughs and Abt 2003; Longworth //et al.// 2008). The primary impacts contributing to the degradation of flows and water quality are both naturally occurring and human-induced. Annual evaporation in the Pecos River basin varies from 5.5 feet near Fort Sumner to about 8 feet at Lake Avalon. Annual evaporation rates of the four major reservoirs in the basin are approximately, on average, 40,000 – 50,000 acre-feet per year (Longworth //et al.// 2008). The major sources of inflow to the Pecos River are snowmelt runoff and monsoon seasonal precipitation (Boroughs and Abt 2003). The underlying alluvial aquifer naturally discharges large quantities of water to the Pecos River.

Seepage from the river into the alluvial aquifer is likely occurring in several reaches of the Pecos River. The reaches between Taiban and Acme, just upstream of Brantley Reservoir, and from Lake Avalon are facing losses due to seepage entering the alluvial aquifer. At Brantley Reservoir, the water seepage into the shallow aquifer is suspected of reemerging as surface water at Brantley Lake. Seepage at Lake Avalon is thought to contribute to base flow downstream of the dam. Losses attributed to both evapotranspiration and seepage have impacted the Pecos River, making the river intermittent at certain times of the year near Acme. The U.S. Geological Survey maintains gages near Taiban and Acme which indicate losses of up to 30 cfs during summer months when the river flows at 100 cfs or less. These loses are critical for the habitat structure, particularly the Pecos Bluntnose Shiner, a listed threatened and endangered species. The Interstate Stream Commission reported the year 2011 as one of the driest years on record in Southern New Mexico, and resulted in drying of 19 miles of critical habitat on the Pecos River (ISC 2011).



Diversions for agricultural irrigation make up the largest consumptive losses on the Pecos River. This region has a long growing period and the Pecos River provides the majority of irrigation water in addition to numerous wells. Approximately 110,000 – 120,000 acre-feet are diverted from the Pecos River annually for irrigation, and this diversion accounts for 78% of surface water withdrawals within the basin. The Pecos River is hydraulically connected to two aquifers in specific lower reaches (Barroll 2004). Particularly near Roswell, the Pecos River is hydraulically connected to the artesian aquifer, where groundwater pumping has significantly diminished flows since the 1940’s. The hydrograph of the river reach between Acme and Artesia illustrates this trend (**Figure 7**). Near Carlsbad, the river is hydraulically connected to the shallow alluvial aquifer. An estimated 400,000 acre-feet is pumped annually from both aquifers.

The Carlsbad Irrigation District (CID) and the Fort Summer Irrigation District are the largest irrigation districts in the Pecos River and make up 85% of the consumptive losses due to irrigation. Surface water is diverted at Avalon Dam to the CID. Nearly 60% of the irrigated acreage in the CID are entitled to supplement well rights, which allows those lands to be irrigated with groundwater from the underlying Carlsbad aquifer system when surface water supplies become limited (Carron //et al.// 2010). The CID historically diverts about 75,000 acre-feet per year. The Pecos Valley Artesian Conservancy District irrigates exclusively with groundwater from the Roswell Artesian Basin

Since 1938, water chemistry of the Pecos River, collected by the State Engineer of New Mexico, has exhibited a sharp increase in total dissolved solids (>5000 mg/L). This increase is observed specifically in the lower Pecos River, the reaches near Artesia and the Malaga Bend. A major source of TDS at the base of the Rustler Formation is due to brine upwelling. Dissolution of evaporates such as anhydrite, gypsum, and halite that occur in the local geologic formations are the driving processes of elevated dissolved salts (Yuan //et al// 2007) (Figure 8).These springs and seeps contribute salts to the Pecos River, giving its waters a salty taste that was noted by pioneers. An effort by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation in the 1960’s to minimize salinity through pumping into surface depressions was unsuccessful. The highest concentrations of TDS (9,000-10,000 mg/L) occur near Malaga, New Mexico and Girvin, Texas where flows in the Pecos River are the lowest.

Changes in stream chemistry have also been attributed to return flows of irrigation water, evaporation, and modification of flow regimes (Longworth 2008; Hoagstrom 2009). Current modified flow regimes from constructed reservoirs have reduced the magnitude and frequency of floods. Coupled with present evaporation rates, modified flow regimes have promoted elevated salinity levels during low-flow periods (Hoagstrom 2009). Historical flooding events in the predevelopment Lower Pecos River would have diluted streamflows and transported salt from the area. The floods in 1941 measured approximately half the concentration of TDS (2,009 mg/L) flowing into Red Bluff Reservoir compared to three previous years (Hoagstrom 2009).


 * Restoration Efforts **

The Pecos river restoration efforts are centralized largely around the removal of the salt cedar. Hart (2005) conducted a study concerning one of these removal projects along a reach of the Pecos located in western Texas. Irrigation districts, landowners, federal and state agencies, as well as private industries all cooperated in order to formulate a plan to reduce the effects of the salt cedar on the native ecosystem. The ecosystem along this particular reach had been overrun by salt cedar to a near monoculture. $1.9 million were spent in order to use a helicopter to spray herbicides from 1999 to 2003.The restoration project observed 85-90% mortality for the invasive tamarisk two years after application of the herbicide. Monitoring of this project includes measuring the salinity of the river, water delivery downstream, as well as water savings. The salinity of the river water has shown no change since the efforts, water savings has improved for local groundwater wells, and water delivery monitoring has been delayed due to drought conditions. A summary of the restoration project area can be seen in figure 2.



The River Ecosystem Restoration Initiative (RERI) is a project concerning many systems in New Mexico including the Pecos River. This effort began in February of 2008 and includes collaborations between the NM Fish and Wildlife, Bureau of Reclamation, Interstate Stream Commission, and the World Wildlife Federation. Goals of the project along the Pecos are: to restore channel dynamics that promote overbanking and spawning habitat, improve storage of floodwaters, decrease fire fuel, and reconnect the artesian flow to the river along an 8.5 mile reach in the Bitter Lake Wildlife Refuge. The efforts included within this project include oxbow sculpting and salt cedar removal. There is currently no published data concerning the monitoring of this project.

The Pecos River at Bitter Lake National Wildlife Refuge (BLNWR) has been a large focus area of restoration from the RERI. The RERI funds received for the BLNWR have been used for Phase II of the restoration effort in the refuge. Phase II includes the removal of salt cedars and floodplain levees, lowering floodplains, reconnecting historic sections of the river, and attempting to re-establish native plant species. Phase I was constructed as part of the mitigation operations for the Pecos River by the Bureau of Reclamation. The RERI funds also enabled the restoration project to extend an additional six miles along the river. Phase II of the restoration is intended to restore a number of ecosystem functions such as flood and drought mitigation, fire reduction, as well as both recreating and maintaining historic biodiversity. The project’s scope includes: restoring basic functions of the Pecos River, improving water quality, improving habitat for the endangered Pecos Bluntnose Shiner, attracting a higher diversity of animal species, removing 100 acres of invasive plant species, reducing flood risk for some properties downstream from the project. As with many other water resource projects, other possibilities are to enhance recreational opportunities, assist with leverage for federal restoration dollars, and increase visitation to the refuge to further the economic benefit (USFWS News Release).

No publications have been released concerning the progress or success of the restoration efforts. Salt cedar removal continues today in the BLNWR with funding from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act Project ( [] ).

**The Pecos River Compact**


 * 1947 Condition and the Pecos River Compact of 1948 **

[|The Pecos River Compact of 1948] came about as a result of conflicting views over water use between New Mexico and Texas. The Pecos River runs from the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, through eastern New Mexico and into Texas. In the 1940s, New Mexico’s population was increasing and towns along the Pecos were no exception. Municipal, domestic and agricultural use by developing cities such as Roswell and Carlsbad were gaining the attention of Texans that were struggling with drought. In November of 1948 the two states came together and formulated the Pecos River Compact. One of the main principles of the Compact is the apportionment of water from the Pecos River. The New Mexico State Engineer in 1948 was John Bliss and his summary of the Compact and the water obligations from New Mexico to Texas are as follows:

“New Mexico shall agree not to deplete by man’s activities the flow of the Pecos River at the New Mexico-Texas state line below an amount which would give to Texas the quantity of water equivalent of the 1947 conditions reported by the engineering advisory committee in its report of January, 1948 and supplements thereto adopted November 11, 1948” (Annual Report, New Mexico State Engineer Office, Fiscal Year 1995, 6-7.).

The entire basis of the Pecos River Compact relies on the definition of the 1947 condition, but streamflow in the Pecos River is highly variable. There have been multiple attempts to quantify the water that travels from the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, through eastern New Mexico and finally into Texas. Much of the early attempts at assessing the flow of the Pecos can be attributed to one man, Royce J. Tipton. He has been criticized for miscalculating the amount of water in the river, neglecting to include wells and groundwater in his counts and oversimplifying the inflow and outflows of the dynamic system. He is also accredited as being the author of the Pecos River Compact as well as the originator of the 1947 condition (Hall, 2002). Tipton defined the 1947 condition as “the water supply of a given year, whether the supply is low in that given year or whether it is high, Texas will receive essentially the same quantity of water that she received under 1947 conditions with the same type of year occurring” (Hall, 2002). This definition is not only vague, but inconclusive, and as illustrated in the subsequent legal battles over the Pecos River, it is extremely difficult to absolutely quantify. Nonetheless, New Mexico and Texas signed the Compact and it was approved by congress in 1949.


 * Amended Decree of 1988 **

In 1974, Texas filed a lawsuit against New Mexico, arguing New Mexico was not delivering promised water from the 1948 Compact. Texas was suing New Mexico for depletions of water from the years 1950 to 1983, claiming that upstream users were depleting the Pecos River water before it could reach the state line. This lawsuit would last 14 years and finally be decided in 1988, but not before countless hours were spent in the courtroom essentially getting nowhere. It was found that Texas was not receiving the apportioned amount of water from New Mexico. However, the amount of the depletion and the causes would be the source of litigation for years to come. As stated in the compact New Mexico had agreed not to deplete the flow in the Pecos River by man’s activities, yet it was impossible to delineate which depletions were manmade, for example wells, (which Tipton neglected to include in his allocation of water in the Pecos), and which were natural depletions. As a result of this lawsuit, the position of River Master came into appointment. The duties of the River Master according to the [| Amended Decree of 1988] include using the methodology in the Manual to calculate the overage or shortfall of the amount of water flowing from New Mexico to Texas and to essentially act as a mediator between the two states should any dissatisfaction occur. After more than a decade, it was finally agreed upon by both states and congress that New Mexico would repay 10,000 acre feet per year in addition to the amount that an appointed River Master would then calculate. New Mexico also had to pay $14 million dollars to Texas.


 * Pecos Settlement of 2003 **

In 2001, New Mexico was faced with yet another possible shortfall in its requirements to supply water to Texas. The Interstate Stream Commission, (ISC) decided at this time to form an ad hoc committee composed of stakeholders and water users along the Pecos River. This committee was tasked with solving the Compact requirement compliance issues on a long-term scale. On March 25, 2003 [|The Pecos Settlement] was signed. Those required to participate in this settlement were the State Engineer, ISC, Bureau of Reclamation, the Carlsbad Irrigation District (CID) and the Pecos Valley Artesian Conservancy District (PVACD).

To avoid future shortages, the ISC purchased land from the CID and PVACD and the subsequent water rights belonging to that land. In the event of a drought, the ISC has the right to pump these lands to compensate for any shortage to Texas. The settlement also protected these districts. A minimum requirement of 50,000 acre-feet was to be supplied to Carlsbad before any water went to Texas. As long as Carlsbad is meeting this minimum, the PVACD is protected from any priority call. If there is ever more than 115,000 acre-feet reaching the state line, it will be reallocated to the CID and then stored. Overall, the ISCs’ involvement in augmentation pumping to supply Texas the agreed amount of water will result in less depletion, an average of 9,400 acre-feet per year delivered to Texas and the potential ability to store the water for future credits.

**Endangered Species in and along the Pecos River**


 * Pecos Bluntnose Shiner **

The Pecos Bluntnose Shiner [PBNS] (//Notropis simus pecosensis//) was listed as an Endangered Species in 1987 due to its depletion of critical habitat. Its habitat has decreased from 320 miles in the river (from Santa Rosa to Carlsbad) down to 200 miles, (from near Fort Sumner down to the Brantley Reservoir) due to shallow water. It needs at least a foot of water in which to live. Much like the Silvery Minnow of the Rio Grande, the Pecos Bluntnose Shiner (PBNS) is typically small, (approximately 3 inches) however this is a relatively large size for a shiner.



Adult fish proliferate in water with a depth between 7 and 16 inches. This water needs to be relatively slow in velocity and optimally flowing over sandy channel bottoms. The Bluntnose Shiner is a pelagic spawning cyprinids, meaning it releases its eggs during relatively high flows, allowing them to float downstream to be fertilized. Once fertilized, the eggs settle to the bottom of the stream, given a slow enough stream velocity. These ova then embed in the sandy sediment and eventually hatch. The fry use pools and riffles in which to grow and mature.

The largest impact on the increased mortality rate of the PBNS is the decrease in flow of the Pecos River. Due to irrigation, and restricted flows cause by dams along the river, the PBNS no longer has adequate depth in which to spawn and reach adulthood. Water quality is also an issue because it affects the rivers’ food web. The PBNS feeds on a multitude of things, from decomposing foliage and algae to invertebrates. Low flows, and increased sediment have caused the amount of dissolved oxygen in the river to decrease, and therefore the system has become much more competitive.


 * Interior least tern **

The Interior Least Tern (Sterna antillarum athalassos) was put on the Endangered Species List in 1985. While prolific in the Mississippi Basin, the reason they are of interest in the Pecos is because they nest at Bitter Lakes National Wildlife Refuge. The area provides optimal conditions for their fledglings. The species nest on sandy beaches where there is little vegetation, which allows them to see oncoming predators. The Interior Least Tern (ILT) begins nesting when flows are high. As the flows recede, the birds incubate their eggs and hatchlings emerge in approximately 20 days.

These terns are considered to be migratory. Fledglings are able to fly at approximately four weeks old, yet it is typical that families of birds remain on their breeding ground through the winter season. Ironically, a source of food in the Pecos River for the ILT is the Bluntnose Shiner, however they also feed on any small fish as well as crustaceans.

Flow alteration is again the impacting factor on the decreased population of ILT. With the flows of the river depleted, the “beaches” become overgrown with vegetation (salt cedars) where predators may hide. Fewer birds chose to nest in the area and when they do; their offspring are more susceptible to predation from animals such as coyotes and bobcats.


 * Water Quality **

Water quality monitoring in New Mexico is in need of improvement. There are large gaps in the data that can be accessed, and, more times than not, the data is incomplete. The most recently monitored and reported information on the water quality of the Pecos River is from 2010 and can be obtained from the [|Environmental Protection Agency].

**Permits needed for restoration**

Any restoration project in the United States requires a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 404 Permit. This permit is outlined by Section 404 of the Clean Water Act and regulates the discharge of dredged, excavated, or filled material in wetlands, streams, rivers and other U.S. waters. Administrations and enforcement shared by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) (who monitor the individual permit decisions and jurisdictional determinations as well as develop policy and guidance) and EPA (which develops and interprets environmental criteria used in evaluating permit applications, identifies activities that are exempt from permitting, reviews or comments on individual permit applications). They both enforce Section 404 provisions, but the EPA has authority to veto USACE decisions.

Other permits may be required depending on the location, scope and extent of the restoration. These permits may need to be obtained from National, State or Local agencies such as:
 * Bureau of Land Management
 * US Forest Services
 * Natural Resource Conservation Service
 * Military Agencies
 * EPA
 * Bureau of Indian Affairs


 * Specific restoration project and necessary regulatory compliance: **

List was acquired from "Friends of Bitter Lake" ( [] ).
 * Pecos River Restoration: Control of the Invasive Saltcedar (//Tamarix spp.//) along the Pecos River and the Salt Creek Wilderness on Bitter Lake National Wildlife Refuge Chavez County, New Mexico **
 * American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 (42 U.S.C. 1996)
 * Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 (16 U.S.C. 470)
 * Clean Air Act of 1972, as amended (42 U.S.C. 7401 //et seq.//)
 * Clean Water Act of 1972, as amended (33 U.S.C. 1251 //et seq.//)
 * Endangered Species Act of 1973, (ESA) as amended (16 U.S.C. 1531 //et seq.//)
 * Executive Order 12898, Federal Action Alternatives to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low Income Populations, 1994.
 * Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958, as amended (16 U.S.C. 661 //et seq.//)
 * Floodplain Management (Executive Order 11988)
 * National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969, as amended (42 U.S.C. 4321 //et seq.//)
 * Regulations for Implementing the Procedural Provisions of NEPA (40 CFR 1500 //et seq//.)
 * National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended (16 U.S.C. 470 //et seq//.)
 * Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 (25 U.S.C. 3001 //et seq.//)
 * Protection and Enhancement of the Cultural Environment (Executive Order 11593)
 * Protection of Wetlands (Executive Order 11990)
 * National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System, as amended (33 U.S.C. 1251 //et seq.//)
 * The Final Comprehensive Conservation Plan and Environmental Assessment for Bitter Lake
 * National Wildlife Refuge (1998, as required by 43 CFR 1610.5).


 * __ Reference List: __**

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