water_quality

__**Water Quality **__


 *  Abstract **

 Within the Rio Grande, there are many contributors which contribute to the water quality. Anthropogenic contributions are largely changing the system and there are local efforts which are trying to monitor the water quality and also prevent future downgrading of the system so future generations can have a sustainable water supply. There are various means to monitoring the water quality either through instrumentation, sampling, bioindicators, and modeling. The sources of contamination vary from land use and effluent to natural contributions such as hydrothermal arsenic contributions. Water quality protection is constantly evolving and with the implementation of the municipal separate storm sewer system, watershed approach, pilot program the way which water quality is managed will hopefully be changed in the United States.


 *  Introduction **

 Water quality standards within the United States were implemented across the country after the Clean Water Act (CWA) of 1972 was passed. This law was an amendment to the existing Federal Water Pollution Control Act and established the framework standards, permits, licenses and provisions which the waters of the United States are currently governed by today. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is the federal regulatory agency that manages the assessment, enforcement and regulation. In addition to federal regulation each state, territory, and authorized tribe has the responsibility to monitor and enforce the provisions on a local scale (Environmental Protection Agency, 2014). To do this, each state must at least meet the minimum standards set forth by the EPA, but they can also choose to exceed the standards if they so choose.

 The EPA has four criteria that they use to determine the appropriate water quality standards for waters within the United States. These criteria are: the designated use of the water, water quality criteria, antidegradation policy, and general policies (Environmental Protection Agency, 2014). These criteria are used to protect the users of the water and their future use of the water. The Rio Grande was designated to have five different uses which include: irrigation, limited warm-water fishery, livestock watering, secondary contact (recreation) and wildlife habitat.

 The conventional means of analyzing basic water quality includes the monitoring of pH, turbidity, conductivity, temperature and dissolved oxygen with instruments such as sondes. However, there are many more parameters which can be measured using various sampling means. There are many different probes that can be used in sondes, other instrumentation can be used such as a submersible ultraviolet nitrate analyzer (SUNA) or Cycle P, and also samples can be collected and used to determine the presence of various contaminants.


 *  Continuous Monitoring **

 Water quality is actively being monitored by several interested agencies, some of which contract out to the US Geological Survey. There has been a strong focus on continuous monitoring because of the value of the data it produces and patterns which can be seen. Beaulieu et al. pointed toward the literature stating, “… the continuous monitoring of ecosystem metabolism in streams and rivers can reveal temporal patterns not apparent with lower-frequency measurements.” The continuous monitoring of rivers can also contribute valuable data during events such as the water quality during runoff events off of burn scars such as the Las Conchas Fire and the Thompson Ridge Fire. Cohen et al. (2013) stated the importance of continuous monitoring as allowing for “direct and indirect coupling of biological, hydrological, and geochemical processes.” The sonde data produced by these agencies has had strong implications for agency decision making such as the Albuquerque Metropolitan Arroyo Flood Control Authorities decision regarding the dissolved oxygen sags which came off the North Diversion Channel. This lead to the filling of a flood pool located between the outlet of the diversion channel and the Rio Grande in an effort to remediate this impact on the water quality.


 * Rio Grande Water Quality **

The Rio Grande has been determined to have several impairments over the last 15 years. Alameda Bridge to Isleta Pueblo was found to be impaired under various parameters including: fecal coliform, dissolved oxygen, Escherichia Coli (E. Coli), polychlorinated biphenols (PCB) in fish tissue and water temperature (Environmental Protection Agency, 2014). There has been total maximum daily loads (TMDLs) put into place to start addressing and move toward the reduction of the E. Coli as well as fecal coliform contamination. The primary cause of E. Coli contamination to the Rio Grande was determined to be dog fecal material which was flushed into the river during storm events. The other impairments have not received TMDLs at this time. Besides the threats which have been outlined by the EPA, there are many threats to the river. Management techniques are being developed and restoration is being implemented in an effort to mitigate the effects of the local threats to the water quality.


 * Threats to local water quality **

// Urbanization //  Urbanization has been one of the largest impacts on the Rio Grande water quality. With increased impervious surface cover, comes a large range of impacts ranging from decreased groundwater and flashy pulses of water hitting the river, to decreased biodiversity and higher pulse concentrations of contaminants (Arnold and Gibbons, 1996 and Paul and Meyer, 2001). Theobald et al. (2009) used census data to determine areas within the United States that are and will be impaired. They stated impervious surface cover is a major threat to rivers in the United States and estimated the 3.6 percent of hydrologic unit codes are impaired and will increase to 8.5 percent by 2030. Therefore, the effects of urban development are increasing and they are putting the major water supply of central New Mexico at risk.

//Urban Runoff //

One of the concerns with urban runoff is the metals that are transported into the river system. Many metals are transported into the river in large episodic events such as the monsoonal rains in Albuquerque. Several metals including: copper, chromium, cadmium, nickel, manganese, zinc, and lead are products of car brakes, metal alloys and car tires which later find their way to urban streams after being deposited on roads and parking lots. Non-point source additions of these metals appear to be playing a greater role in stream contamination above point sources (Paul and Meyer, 2001). Sediment size, concentrations of organic matter and geomorphic features all have an impact on the mobility and concentration of metals within an system. Stream beds with low velocity waters are areas where fine sediments and organic matter accumulate, and they accumulate higher concentrations of metals. These highly concentrated areas have led some researchers to suggest streambeds are of particular concern, as well as the surface water, due to biological responses to increased toxins and the trophic upgrading of these toxins. Biological communities can be altered significantly and restructured with reduced abundance of organisms within the community due to high concentrations of these toxic metals.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 18px;">Other concerns are the Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pharmaceuticals and petroleum-based aliphatic hydrocarbons are some of the organic contaminants which affect urban stream ecology. PCBs are known to be carcinogenic and have not been in use for some time since they were outlawed. They are still found, however, in urban areas and are thought to enter the streams by surface runoff <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 18px;">(Paul and Meyer, 2001). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 18px;"> They can affect sensitive organisms and can enter into larger organisms used for human consumption through direct contact in the water column or by consumption of organisms containing the contaminants. PAH’s are thought to enter streams through industrial runoff, effluent or episodic spills of the contaminant. Vehicles are also a major contributor due to leaky crankcases and oil spilled on surfaces such as parking lots, later to be washed into channels such as the North Diversion Channel during a precipitation event. Stormwater channels feed directly into the river, bring along with the rain, any contaminants it has picked up along the way. The sources of contamination usually enter through non-point sources and have varying seasonal concentrations in areas which exhibit large amounts of seasonal variation in precipitation and runoff.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Pesticides are put into streams via agriculture runoff and by non-point source contributions such as urban runoff. Urban pesticide use was determined in a 1983 study to be one third of the United States total pesticide use (Paul and Meyer, 2001). The primary application of pesticides is around homes, buildings, lawns and golf courses. A particular concern with the amount of pesticide use in urban areas is its use is not well documented like they are in agricultural areas. Pesticides can be of concern when water is being diverted for drinking water, but is even of greater concern to the biological communities which can have extremely low tolerances to some pesticides. Hyalella Azteca, which is a common amphipod, can have complete mortality in the parts per trillion of pyrethroid pesticides which are now the most common commercial household insecticides (He, 2008). This can have large upward trophic impacts which can cause ecosystems to restructure in their absence.

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Local Efforts to Combat Urbanization // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> This threat to the river is growing, however the Rio Grande Watershed is now under a pilot program established by the EPA to help mitigate and slow this growing threat. The new watershed based municipal separate storm sewer system (MS4) permitting requires specific developments and construction projects to retain .44 inches of each rainfall event onsite. The sites which are required to comply with this new management directive are projects which disturb more than one acre of land. There are two phases of the program which encompass different size projects, the first phase which was finalized in 1990 covers projects of five acres or more, and the second phase which was finalized in 1999 for projects one to five acres. One of the great aspects of this program is that it realizes pollution does not respect jurisdictional boundaries and looks at the watershed in its entirety. However, until the working relationship is established among the potentially interested parties, there are likely going to be many hurdles including lawsuits, miscommunication and failure to act due to agencies blaming one another. This program is of particular importance due the need for a stormwater utility to monitor and manage the point-source polluters and establishing a means for penalties if standards are not met. Therefore, there may be a new utility which is established that will specifically manage stormwater quality.

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Agricultural Runoff // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Agricultural runoff has been a large contributor to the eutrophication of the Rio Grande and its reservoirs. In nutrient limited streams, there can be large algal blooms and in non-nutrient limited streams turbidity can increase as a result causing a reduction in algal communities. Return flows from agriculture fields introduce high concentrations of nutrients into the river. This is mostly caused by fertilizers which are put down on the fields to assist in crop growth. These same fields also contribute to groundwater contamination from increased nitrate concentrations finding their way into the water table (Williams et al., 1998). Also associated with agriculture and depending on the management of the water salinity can greatly increase, thus affecting downstream users (Skaggs et al., 1994). The maximum salinity for consumptive use, as determined by the EPA, is 250 mg/L (Environmental Protection Agency, 2014). Salinity does supercede this value during segments of the river, but the water is not being used for drinking at these reaches. A study conducted by Chen and Hei (2003) found the solute concentrations increased 100% below irrigation found in China. Part of the reason is due to the evaporation of the water, leaving the solutes behind. Then when the water returns to the river via return flow, it has an increased concentration of solutes and degrades the quality of the water which is observed as a spike in specific conductance. This can be observed using specific conductance probes on sondes, and this trend has been observed along the Rio Grande by students at the University of New Mexico. Agriculture is highly protected under federal laws and is not considered a point source for contaminants. This makes it particularly hard to manage its contribution to water quality in streams.

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Wastewater Effluent // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Wastewater effluent can have various impacts on river quality depending on the technology used at the treatment plant. Treatment plants can have several stages which they undergo including: pretreatment, aeration, final clarification, overflow/backwash chambers, disinfection using ultraviolet light, digesters, grit chambers and more. When the resulting effluent is released back into the river, whatever was not treated ends up in the river as well as any resulting forms of the nutrients. Ammonium can be of particular concern as an effluent discharge due to its effect on pH and can cause detrimental effects on animal species within the river. Nitrate can cause eutrophication and increased biomass downstream of effluent discharge depending on several hydrologic factors of the reach. Nitrite (the intermediate form of nitrogen) is not usually considered because if there is a healthy nitrogen cycle within the system, the nitrite is quickly converted to nitrate. Also, many treatment plants cannot process chemical compounds such as those found in pharmaceuticals (i.e. birth control, hormones, antibiotics, etc.) and also caffeine. Therefore, these contaminants pass through the treatment plant and into the water supply for downstream users and affect the biotic organisms within the system. Brooks et al. in 2006 studied 5 states, including New Mexico, and found more than 90% of instream flow was effluent. Due to these high effluent discharges and estimates which say this is likely to continue increasing (Brooks et al., 2006), management techniques are of key importance in urban impacted watersheds.

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Local Wastewater Treatment // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> The Southside Wastewater Reclamation Plant is operated by Albuquerque Bernalillo County Water Utility Authority and is the third largest tributary to the Rio Grande. Before the plant underwent a large remodeling, ammonium levels were the primary concern within the effluent water. Now the effluent is dominated with nitrate discharge which is likely one of the greatest contributors to the large algal blooms in Elephant Butte Reservoir each year. The plant consists of about 10 steps to treat the wastewater coming into it and utilizes several stages to separate the waste, metabolize some of it, produce methane gas to make the plant more self-sufficient, and destroy viruses before being released back into the river (Albuquerque Bernalillo County Water Utility Authority, 2014).

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Biological Impacts // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Biological impacts to water quality can range from harmful algal blooms to the introduction of an invasive species. Certain species of algae produce toxins which allow them to out-compete other algae. Some of these algae can kill off fish, mammals, birds and cause human illness (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2014). These impacts have reached New Mexico according to a report released by New Mexico Game and Fish in October 2013. This algal bloom was deemed to have killed more than 100 elk in the northeastern part of the state.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> The introduction of invasive species can largely affect water quality, such as the introduction of the zebra mussel which completely upsets the balance of food webs when introduced and can lead to degradation of the water quality (McCormick et al. 2009). They also stated, “ Recent evidence suggests that water is a vector for the spread of Sudden Oak Death disease and Port-Orford-cedar root disease” facilitated by the introduction of invasive species. Invasive species have impacts which usually are not predicted or thought out well when intentionally introduced. However, the zebra mussel is transferred across state lines usually on watercraft and vehicles. New Mexico Game and Fish have had large initiatives trying to prevent this mussel from entering our water systems.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Natural Contributors to Poor Water Quality **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Not only do anthropogenic inputs affect water quality, but also various geological sources can cause decreased water quality. Groundwater inputs from hydrothermal systems such as the one in Jemez Springs, New Mexico contributes a substantial amount of arsenic into the system. This river then feeds into the Rio Grande where it is diluted significantly and is no longer of a large concern for downstream users. Also, groundwater can be of poor quality as well depending on many different natural and anthropogenic variables. Water in the south valley of Albuquerque is high in salinity and therefore is not used for consumption; wells are commonly used for non-potable uses. Salinity can be a common contaminant found in systems especially those which are heavily dominated by agriculture. Hyporheic water contributions can contribute large amounts of dissolved organic carbon after long periods without precipitation or after snowmelt (Baker, et al. 2000). The hydrologic pressure from snowmelt or rainwater seepage causes a flushing of the shallow alluvial groundwater into the surface water. This study was in a first order stream in the Rio Calaveras in the Jemez Mountains and shows a bimodal fluctuation in organic carbon within a system.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Biological Indicators of Water Quality **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Some species of aquatic insects, plants and other organisms can be used as indicators of the water quality. Ephemeroptera (may flies), Plecoptera (stone flies), and Trichoptera (caddis flies), or E.P.T. as they are commonly referred to as, are species of macroinvertebrate or aquatic insects which are used as bioindicators of water quality. All three of these aquatic insects are usually only seen in high order, montane streams which have exceptional water quality. The stone flies are known to be particularly sensitive amongst the group. These species are very responsive to changing water quality and can indicate minor changes in water quality within a system. Biodiversity within a system can also indicate water quality due to the preponderance of poor water quality leading to a reduction of biodiversity. Bioindicators can vary depending on the system which is being observed.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Modeling Water Quality **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Water quality can be modeled using various tools available that have various limitations and strengths. Tong and Chen (2001) chose to use the Better Assessment Science Integrating Point and Nonpoint Sources (BASINS) model to determine the impacts of land use and water quality. They determined a strong correlation between land use on instream water quality with high correlations for nitrogen, phosphorous and Fecal coliform. This model was used in conjunction with geographic information systems to determine a spatial analysis of areas with high contaminations and various land uses. Other models which are available at the environmental protection agency website include DFLOW, CORMIX, and WASP7. Each of the models have a specific parameter which they model.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Conclusions **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> The Environmental Protection Agency has chosen to take a watershed approach toward water quality management. This approach is requiring some reconstruction of the management and inter-agency collaboration which is likely to have many hurdles which must be overcome. In the Rio Grande watershed, there are many contributions to the overall water quality with agriculture and urbanization being the largest sources of contamination. However, agriculture has federal protections which severely limit its regulation. This is not the case with effects or urbanization and efforts are being conducted to mitigate its impact. In this watershed there are several means of determining, monitoring and modeling water quality with many interested parties/agencies involved and changes have been implemented to restore and mitigate water quality degradation.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;">The impacts of urban development are far reaching and impact a large variety of water quality parameters. There are some ways to mitigate the effects such as increasing wastewater effluent technology and properly disposing of pharmaceuticals so they do not end up in the water supply, biota and sediment. The use of modeling can be used in decision making regarding land use, infrastructure, and conveyance means (natural vs. concrete lined channels) which will have lasting long-term effects on the Rio Grande water quality. The municipal separate storm sewer system pilot program requiring .44” of each rainfall event on site will require innovation or green infrastructure and will reduce the contaminants which enter the surface water but will likely increase groundwater contamination over time.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',Times,serif; font-size: 140%;"> Literature Cited **

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